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. V 




GRAMMAR 


OF 


THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 


BY 


j 

C. F. BECKER, M.D. 


LONDON: 
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 


1830. 




PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, 

PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON, 
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. 



PREFACE. 


A HE present work is intended to afford to English 
readers the means of studying the German language, 
in conformity with those views of its structure which 
have of late been introduced by the grammarians of 
Germany. 

It is generally admitted, that those German Gram- 
mars which have hitherto been published for the use 
of Englishmen, are very incomplete, and incapable of 
leading to a full understanding of the language. They 
moreover, all of them, adhere to a method derived 
from the German grammarians of the last century, 
who endeavoured to arrange their observations ac- 
cording to the antiquated forms of the Latin Gram- 
mars of that period. Whatever success may have 
attended that method in the study of other modern 
languages, it has long been found quite improper in 
German grammar; for whilst it was followed, the 
true principles of the structure of the language re- 
mained unknown ; rules which are extremely simple 
were rendered very complicated ; and above all, the 
study of the language was made notoriously difficult 
to foreigners. 

a 2 


IV PREFACE. 

In the mean time some German grammarians, 
among whom the greatest merit is unquestionably 
due to Dr. J. Grimm, have opened a new road to 
the study of the German language, by their historical 
investigations into the ancient Teutonic tongue, and 
by their comparisons of the different languages and 
dialects derived from that common source. At the 
same time the principles of general grammar have 
been very successfully elucidated by other philosophi- 
cal inquirers, among whom Baron W. von Humboldt 
occupies the most prominent station. The author of 
this work has been for some time engaged in similar 
researches. He first endeavoured to point out the 
laws of the formation of words in the German lan- 
guage (Seutfc&c 2£ort6t(btm£. ^ranffurt, 1824) ; subse- 
quently he published a treatise on the Philosophy of 
Language (Dr#am$m fcer ©pracfje. granrTurt, 1827) ; and, 
the views laid down in these writings having obtained 
the approbation of his countrymen, he has recently 
prepared a Grammar of the German language for the 
use of Germans (^eutfdbe ©mmmattf. gmnffurt, 1829). 
Upon that work the present German Grammar for the 
use of Englishmen has been modelled, with such addi- 
tions, omissions, and modifications, as were thought 
expedient in accommodating its contents to English 
readers. It has been the author's wish to avoid all 
lengthened details on the more abstract parts of Ger- 
man grammar : and he has accordingly, for the di- 
rection of those who may wish to enter into these 
researches, made frequent references to his works 
published in the German language. He has thought 


PREFACE. V 

proper, however, to give a short view of those prin- 
ciples of general grammar, which his inquiries have 
led him to adopt, and an acquaintance with which will 
be found greatly to facilitate the right understanding 
of the particular rules of German grammar. These 
principles will be found in the Introduction ; the pe- 
rusal of which the author would recommend to such 
readers as are not altogether averse to theory, and 
especially to those teachers of the German language 
who may be disposed to employ this Grammar as a 
guide for instruction. 

The author is fully aware, that in introducing to the 
English reader a grammatical terminology in a great 
measure new, and in devoting more attention than is 
usually done to the theoretical part of the Grammar, 
he incurs the risk of discouraging many of those who 
wish to acquire only a practical knowledge of the 
language : but he can positively affirm, that, the first 
apparent difficulties being overcome, the rules of Ger- 
man grammar will be found reduced to extreme sim- 
plicity and comprehensiveness ; and he may be allowed 
to state, that more than ten years' constant experience 
in teaching the principles of the German language to 
Englishmen, appears to him fully to show the practi- 
cal advantages of the method which he recommends. 

In teaching German to foreigners, the author is in 
the habit of first placing in their hands the Gram- 
matical Tables, which form the Appendix to this 
work. With the assistance of these Tables and of a 


VI PREFACE. 

dictionary, they immediately (i. e. without any previous 
exercise of memory in learning declensions, conjuga- 
tions, or other rules) begin to translate from English 
into German. He is of opinion that foreigners will 
acquire a knowledge of the German language in the 
most expeditious, and at the same time the most 
correct manner, by making such translations, with a 
constant reference to the Tables, and to the paragraphs 
of the Grammar in which the contents of the Tables 
are more fully explained. It has on this account been 
thought unnecessary to increase the bulk of the work 
by exercises upon each rule ; for every English author 
may serve as an exercise book for the application of 
all the rules, each of which will easily be found in the 
Grammar, with the assistance of the Tables and of the 
alphabetical Index. Each rule, however, is illustrated 
by German examples, with English translations ; and, 
moreover, a series of quotations from the best Ger- 
man authors, chiefly Schiller and Goethe, has been 
added; in translating which the student will familiarize 
himself particularly with the idiomatical expressions of 
the German language. 

Those who are acquainted with the subject of this 
work, will at first sight discover in what respects it 
differs from other books bearing a similar title. They 
will find that it adopts the formation of words as the 
foundation of German grammar; that in enlarging 
upon the laws of the formation of words, it shows 
their intimate connection with the laws of inflection ; 
that it deduces from the same source the gender of 


PREFACE. Vll 

substantives, the explanation of which has hitherto 
baffled all attempts at artificial rules, and the declen- 
sion of substantives and adjectives, for which each 
Grammar has proposed a peculiar system, but which 
is now reduced to its natural simplicity ; and that it 
does away with the long list of irregular verbs, which 
have always been so heavy a burden to the memory 
of students, but are now almost all classed in a 
few regular conjugations. The introduction of the 
author's views on general grammar has led to the im- 
portant distinction between Notional and Relational 
words ; in consequence of which the rules relative to 
pronouns and auxiliary verbs appear in a new light : 
also to a new classification of cases, of the relations 
expressed by them, and of the prepositions which are 
employed instead of them. The laws of German syn- 
tax have been simplified, and at the same time ren- 
dered precise, by being reduced under the heads of 
the three combinations (Predicative, Attributive, and 
Objective). Much attention is paid to the subject of 
Compound sentences : and the construction of sen- 
tences, which has always appeared extremely difficult 
to foreigners, is explained in a few rules, so as scarcely 
to leave any room for committing errors. 

The author has to apologize for having frequently 
made use of English words in acceptations altogether 
unusual. Of this description are particularly the ex- 
pressions, Notion, Relation, Notional and Relational 
words, Activity and Existence, Attributive, Predicative, 
and Objective Factors and Combinations, Subjective, 


Vlll PREFACE. 

Adjective, and Adverbial sentences, Coordinative and 
Subordinative conjunctions, &c. All these terms, how- 
ever, appeared to him necessary, in order to avoid 
lengthened circumlocutions ; and he hopes that no 
disadvantage will result from them, as their definitions 
will in all instances be easily found by means of the 
frequent references from one paragraph to another, 
and by consulting the alphabetical Index. 

Offenbach on the Mai?ie 9 
September 1829. 


y 


CONTENTS, 


INTRODUCTION. 

Notions and relations, notional words and relational words, 

different kinds of notions and of notional words § 1 — 4 

Kinds of verbs 5 

of substantives . « . . 6 

of adjectives 7 

Different kinds of relations, expressed by inflection and 

by relational words . . 8 — 10 

Sentences, combinations which constitute sentences, and 

factors of combinations , .» , , 11 — 14 

Accentuation and eurythmy 15 — 17 

German language and its dialects 18 

Foreign words 19 

Division of grammar 20 


Part L— ETYMOLOGY. 

Section I. — Formation of Words. 

Chapter I. — Of Articulate Sounds § 21 — 30 

Articulate sounds, and their division 21, 22 

Vowels 23 — 25 

Consonants 2Q 29 

Euphony „ , 30 

Chapter II. — Of Roots and Primary Derivatives 31 — 35 

Roots 3i 

Primary derivatives 32 

Substantives ss, 34 

Adjectives ..,.., , , , 35 

b 


X CONTENTS. 

Chapter III. — Of Secondary Derivatives § 36—52 

Affixes 36 

Derivative verbs 37 

Concrete substantives 38 — 41 

Abstract substantives 42 — 48 

Adjectives 49 — 51 

Adverbs , 52 

Chapter IV. — Of Compounds 53—63 

Compounds 53 

of notional words 54> — 57 

of relational words 58 

of notional words with relational words 59 

Prefixes 60—63 


Section II. — Of the different kinds of words, and their respec- 
tive inflection. 

Chapter I.— Of Verbs § 64—92 

Different kinds of verbs 64 — 70 

Moods, tenses, persons, and participial forms of 

verbs 71 — 77 

Conjugation of verbs 78 — 92 

Chapter II.— Of Substantives 93 — 114 

Gender of substantives 93 — 99 

Articles 100—103 

Plural number of substantives 104, 105 

Declension of substantives 106 — 114 

Chapter III.— Of Adjectives 115—118 

Division of adjectives 115 

Declension of adjectives 116 

Comparison 117, 118 

Chapter IV.— Of Pronouns 119—132 

Division of pronouns 119 

Personal pronouns 120 — 123 

Demonstrative pronouns 124 — 128 

Interrogative and relative pronouns 129 — 131 

Indefinite pronouns 132 


CONTENTS. XI 

Chapter V.— Of Numerals § 133—136 

Cardinal numerals 133 

Ordinal numerals 134 

Variative, distributive, multiplicative, &c. numerals 135 

Indefinite numerals 136 

Chapter VL— Of Adverbs 137—141 

Division of adverbs . . . 137 

Relational adverbs 138, 139 

Notional adverbs 140, 141 

Chapter VII. — Of Prepositions 142 — 151 

Division of prepositions. Cases governed by pre- 
positions 142, 143 

Prepositions with the dative case 144 — 146 

with the accusative case 147 

— with the dative and accusative case 148, 149 

improper 150, 151 

Chapter VIII. — Of Conjunctions 152—156 

Compound sentences, co-ordinative and subordina- 
te conjunctions 152 

Division of co-ordinative conjunctions 153 

Copulative conjunctions 154 

Adversative conjunctions 155 

Causal conjunctions 156 


Part II.— SYNTAX. 

Chapter I. — Syntax of the Predicative Combination ... § 157 — 166 

Predicative subject 157, 158 

Subject 159 

Predicate, persons, numbers, tenses, of the verb. . 160 — 162 

Moods of the verb 163 — 166 

Chapter II. — Syntax of the Attributive Combination . . . 167 — 174 

Attributive combination 167, 168 

Attributive adjective 169, 170 

Substantive in apposition 171 

Attributive genitive 172 — 174 


Xii CONTENTS, 

Chapter III. — Syntax of the Objective Combination . ... § 175 — 189 

Objective combination, its different kinds ........ 175 — 177 

Relation of causality , 178 

Dative relation 179 

Genitive relation 180 

Ablative relation 181 

Accusative relation 182 

Factitive relation 183, 184 

Prepositions expressive of causality 185 

Relation of locality 186 

of time 187 

of manner 188, 189 

Chapter IV. — Syntax of Compound Sentences 190 — 202 

Principal and accessory sentences 190, 191 

Subordinative conjunctions 192 

Substantive-sentences , 193 

Adjective-sentences 194- 

Adverbial sentences 195 — 202 

Chapter V.— Of Construction 203—212 

Construction direct and inverted 203, 204 

of the predicative combination 205 — 208 

of the attributive combination 209 

of the objective combination 210, 211 

— — of compound sentences 212 


A GRAMMAR 


OF 


THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 


INTRODUCTION. 


§1. 

SPEECH is the natural medium for the communication of 
human thought. The materials of thought consist of the 
Notions of persons, things, and actions (^ecjviffe). Its form, 
on the other hand, consists of the Relations (tBqkfyungCtt) 
which those notions bear to one another as well as to the 
speaker. Hence language, the expression of thought, con- 
sists of Notional Words (^e^viffSWOttev) which represent per- 
sons, things, or actions, as father, dog, house, river, bark, 
come, deep, together with Signs of Relation ; and these Signs 
of Relation are either mere Terminations ((?ttbun$en)j or 
Relational Words (goniWOVter). For example, in the follow- 
ing sentences, my father's falling house ; the dog barks ; the 
boy comes here ,> the river is deep ; the relations of father, 
fall, house, &c. to one another, and to the speaker, are ex- 
pressed either by the terminations 5, ing, s, es, or by the re-* 
lational words my, the, here, is, 

§2. 

All notional words are either Roots (WllYfidn), i. e. words 
from which other words are derived, but which themselves 
are underived : e. g. bind, grow, fee, fnd; or Derivative 
Words, which, again, are either Primary Forms (©tantme), de- 
rived immediately from roots, e. g. bound, bond, great, growth, 
fight, found ; or Secondary Forms (©projjfbvnmi), i. e. words 




2 INTRODUCTION. 

derived from primary forms, e. g. bondage, greatness, flighty, 
foundling. Roots are the expressions of 'Radical Notions (^Buv^eU 
6e$riffc), whilst derivative words express Derivative Notions 
($l6$eldtete ^grtffe). The radical notion, variously modified, 
continues to be expressed by all the derivatives formed from 
a root, in the same way as the fundamental sounds of the root, 
Radical Sounds (^uv^ellaute), are retained, although equally 
modified. Thus the radical notion of binding, as well as the 
radical sounds b and nd, is to be found in the derivatives band 
and bondage, formed from the root bind. Whilst, on the one 
hand, we recognise a derivative word by the identity of its 
sounds w 7 ith the radical sounds — we, on the other hand, ap- 
preciate its meaning by comparing the derivative with the 
radical notion *. 

Observation. — Derivative words are, in general, more perfectly under- 
stood, in proportion as it is easy to trace their connection with their respec- 
tive roots. The German derivatives, in general, issue from roots belonging 
to the same language, most of which are still in use : they are, therefore, 
more perfectly understood, than the derivatives of those modern languages 
which result from a mixture of two or more languages. Thus the word 
23Unbnifj, derived from 25imb, which again is formed from the root HnbfJl 
(to bind), is more perfectly understood than the English word alliance, de- 
rived from the Latin ligare, or from the French tier. The laws of German 
derivation are indispensable to those who wish to become thoroughly ac- 
quainted with the significations of German words. 

§3. 
All notions, expressed by language, are either notions of 
an activity (Se^Vtffe iXXMX 2$ati#feit), or notions of an existence 
(Q?C$f tffe etW$ ©em$) f. The notion of an activity is express- 
ed by a Verb, when the activity is contemplated as bearing 
the relations of Person, Time, and Mood to the speaker 
(see § 8); e.g. he drank, he fled, the tree grows: i^ is ex- 
pressed by an adjective when it is not thus related to the 
speaker ; e. g. a drunken person, a flighty thought, a great tree. 
The notion of an existence, i. e. of a person or thing which 
really exists, or is conceived by the mind as existing, is ex- 
pressed by a substantive : e. g. a drinker, a drink, the flock, 

* ©eutfcfye ©rnmmnttf, § S. f Danism, § 25; ©rrtmmnttf, § 4. 


INTRODUCTION. 3 

the flight, the growth. All notional words, accordingly, are 
either verbs, adjectives, or substantives. 

§ 4. 
It maybe affirmed, in general, that all roots are verbs*, 
and that all radical notions (§ 2.) are notions of activity. 
All substantives, as well as adjectives, are therefore derived 
from verbs; and all notions, expressed by substantives, are 
notions of activity, transformed into notions of existence. 
All substantives, therefore, imply either an active subject, as a 
duck from to duck, a snake from to sneak ; or 2dly, an effect, 
as a song from to sing, a bit from to bite, a speech from to 
fepeak ; or Sdly, the abstract notion of an activity, as flight, 
growth, from to flee, to grow f. 

Observation. — Grammarians commonly distinguish in the signification of 
verbs and adjectives, doing (activity), suffering (passiveness), and a condition, 
which is neither active nor passive (neuter). In comprehending, however, 
under the general notion of activity, besides activity properly so called, the 
notion of suffering, in which the subject of the verb is an object of an ac- 
tivity, and that of a condition, which may be regarded as a permanent ac- 
tivity, we are in agreement with the historical fact, that the distinction of 
Doing, Suffering, and Condition does not originally exist in radical verbs. 
The fundamental notion of most of these verbs is that of an intransitive 
action ; which is, however, conceived in so general a manner, that it easily 
comprehends action as well as passion and condition; all of which present 
themselves merely as modifications of the fundamental notion. In the En- 
glish and German languages many verbs are used even now, both in an 
active and in a passive signification, as, to please, to look, to smell; e.g. do 
whatever you 'please, and whatever pleases you ; I look at him, and he looks 
pale ; I smell a rose, and the rose smells. 

§5. 
Verbs are called Transitive, if their notion is incomplete, 
without the supplementary notion of an object (see § 177), 
conceived to be affected by the action, which the verb ex- 
presses : e. g. to blame (a person), to bless (a person), to bribe, 
to cherish, to support. Verbs are called Intransitive, if their 
notion, in order to be complete, requires either no supplemen- 
tary notion whatever, or that of an object, which is not con- 

* Organism, § 25 ; ©rnmmntif, § 33. f ©rammatif, § 4. 

B 2 


4 INTRODUCTION. 

ceived to be affected by the action expressed by the verb : 
e.g. to walk, to sleep, to stand, to fall, to depend (upon some- 
thing), to long (for something). Transitive verbs are called 
Factitive, if they imply an action, which again causes an in- 
transitive action of the supplementary object: e. g. to fill, to 
raise (to make one fall, to make one rise*). In German, a 
few intransitive radical verbs are used also in the factitive sig- 
nification, as fasten, fteben, 6te#en, Bremen ; but the most part 
of factitive verbs are derivatives, as fallen, to fell ; trdrifen, to 
make one drink ; fau$en, to give suck. There is a particular 
form of intransitive verbs, for the most part formed from fac- 
titive verbs, by joining with them the reflective pronoun in the 
accusative case : e. g. ©icfr rit^men (to praise one's-self), to 
boast ; (gtcfc n>enbett (to turn one's-self), to turn ; ©tcf) 6ticfen, 
to bow ; @idb fcfchrnen, to be ashamed. These verbs, which 
correspond to Greek verbs in the middle voice, are termed 
Reflective f . 

§6. 

Substantives are, either names of persons, as man, father, 
gardener, or names of things. The latter again are either Con- 
crete, i. e. names of things really existing, as house, tree, k?iifi; 
or Abstract, i. e. names denoting activity and modes of activity, 
which are, however, conceived by the mind as real existences, 
e. g. course, life, pride, friendship, freedom. Concrete substan- 
tives are either names of materials (©toffbarrtert), i. e. names 
of things in which no individual is distinguished, as water, 
milk, sand, iron, money, grass; or 2dly, common names (@e= 
wemuamen), i. e. names of a species, comprehending indivi- 
duals, as soldier, horse, tree, Jiouse ; or 3dly, proper names 
((ft^ennamcn), i. e. names of individuals, not conceived as indi- 
viduals of a species, as John, Pitt, London, Rhine. Substan- 
tives which comprehend a multitude of individuals under the 
abstract notion of a unity, such as nation, senate, society, clergy, 
are termed Collective substantives : they may be regarded as 
belonging to the abstract class ; and we shall find accordingly, 
that, in German, their formation is the same as that of other 
abstract substantives. (See § 43, 46, 47, 48 X). 

* DrgnmSm, § 26. f ©rnmniatif, § 5. \ ©rnmmnttf, § 6. 


INTRODUCTION. 5 

Observation.— All German substantives, and words used substantively, 
are in writing distinguished by capital initial letters, as bflj £HU15, the house ; 
bie Xugenb, the virtue ; bit 2(lte, the old man ; btf ©ecbjV, ^e number six ; 
ba# 9lid)t$, nothing. 

§7. 
Adjectives are termed Attributive, if they stand only in the 
relation of agreement with a substantive ; as a large house, a 
kind father. They are termed Predicative, if they are con- 
nected with the verb to be, which expresses the relations of 
personality, of time, and of mood, and by means of this con- 
nection assumes the power of a verb (§3.); e. g. the house is 
large, the father was kind. In the connection of the attributive 
adjective with a substantive, the latter is frequently omitted ; 
and the adjective, thus used substantively, implies the notion of 
the substantive understood : as, the learned, i. e. the learned 
men. This practice is very common in German ; but it is 
admissible only when the substantive understood implies either 
the notion of a person generally, and without any further di- 
stinction than that of sex, or the notion of things in the most 
general and indefinite way. Adjectives used substantively are 
in the masculine or feminine gender, if they imply persons ; 
they are in the neuter gender, if they imply things: as, Ctll 
2Beifer, a wise man ; ber 5lrttte, the poor man ; £)ie ©UtCIl, the 
good ones ; bit $ltte, the old woman ; tim ©dbbtft, a fair one ; 
and fra$ @ttte, good things; ba$ 9?Clte, new things; ba$ (§roj?e, 
great things # . 

From adjectives used substantively, which retain the inflec- 
tion and the whole shape of adjectives, we must distinguish 
Adjective Substantives, which, in the same manner, are origi- 
nally adjectives, but have assumed the inflection and the whole 
form of substantives, and have ceased to be considered as ad- 
jectives. They are either masculine names of persons and 
animals, as .gelb, hero ; ,£nvt, herdsman ; $lffe, ape ; Qd)i, ox 


* 2)em Za p f r e n, bem G? n t \'d> ( o % n e n tft fie giinftig. Schiller. 
2)te @uten fatten 3?raft bet ttym befyatten, nid)t in ber @d)ted)ten @<im wtif n 
gefrttten. Sch. 

2>a$ Ungemetne foil, bn$ £orf)fte felbft gefcfyefjn mie bnS 9t(itng(irf)e.. Srk* 

d$ mug bee Srtufd) gefrfjefyen jroifdjen 3ettlirf)em unb Grroigem. <Sc7< 

2><iS © u t e ttebt bnS @ r n b c. ScA. 

<?tti 58erfrorgetieS tft fid) brtS ©d)bnfte. 5cA. 


6 INTRODUCTION. 

(see § 35) ; or neuter abstract substances, as bUv 31>eij?, the 
white colour ; t>a$ ©Vim, the green colour ; ba» Ue6c(, the evil; 
ba$ 9?e<*t, the law*. 

§8. 

The relations of notions (% 1) are either the relations of 
notions one to another, or the relations of notions to the person 
who speaks. The relations of notions one to another are of 
three kinds : — first, that of the predicate to the subject ; se- 
condly, that of an attributive to a substantive ; and thirdly, 
that of an object to the predicate (see § 11, 12, 13). The re- 
lations of notions to the speaker are twofold, inasmuch as these 
notions must be either notions of an activity, or notions of an 
existence (§3). 

The relations of notions of activity are: — 

a. The relation of Mood. It distinguishes the real existence 
or real non-existence, the necessity or the mere possibility of an 
action referred to the real existence of the speaker ; e. g. your 
friend is coming, he comes indeed, he is not coming, he must 
come, come here, if he might or should come, perhaps he will 
come. 

b. The relation of Time. The time of an action is con- 
ceived as present, past, or future, merely in reference to the 
present existence of the speaker : e. g. he is writing, he has 
written, he will write, he now writes, he will write soon. 

c. The relation of Intensity: e. g. he runs swiftly, he runs 
more swiftly, he runs most swiftly, he runs very swiftly. 

The relations of notions of existence are: — 

a. The relation of Personality by which a subject is distin- 
guished, as being either the speaker himself (/ write), or as 
spoken to {you write), or as spoken of {lie writes). 

b. The relation of Locality, as far as it is determined by 
the place which the speaker occupies : e. g. he lives here, he 
goes there. The relations of space, distinguished by above and 
below, before and behind, within and without, are also of this 
description. 

c. The relation of Number and Quantity. The former is 

* ©rrtmmntif, § 8. 


INTRODUCTION. 7 

the relation of persons and things conceived as individuals: e. g. 
three boys, six horses, many trees : the latter refers to things 
conceived as material, without any distinction of individuals ; 
e. g. some bread, much money *. 

| 9. 

The relations of notions one to another, as well as the rela- 
tions of notions to the speaker, are expressed either by Inflec- 
tion ; e. g. the farmers house, the father speak-s, the father 
command-ed, the boy spoke, a happi-er man : or by Relational 
words (§ 1 ), e. g. the house of the farmer, the father is speak- 
ing, he has commanded, a more happy man. Most of the 
latter are derived from radical verbs, and therefore were origi- 
nally notional words (§ 2) ; they have now come to imply 
merely relations of notions, and do not differ in their present 
signification from the terminations of inflection. The use of 
relational words increases in languages in the same proportion 
as the power of inflection diminishes. 

The power of inflection of the German language, although 
inferior to that of the ancient languages, is greatly superior to 
that of the English; a variety of relations, therefore, which 
the English language distinguishes by means of separate rela- 
tional words, are in German expressed by way of inflection. 

§10. 

The following kinds of words are to be considered as Rela- 
tional words : — 

1.) Pronouns, and all derivatives of pronouns. Pronouns 
are not derived from radical verbs ; and it seems that they 
originally do not imply any notion (§ 2), but merely a rela- 
tion, viz. that of personality (§ 8)f. 

2.) The verb to be. This verb also appears originally to 
imply, not a notion, but mere relation ; viz. that of the pre- 
dicative adjective (or substantive^ § 11) to the subject, and 
those of mood, time, and personality (§ 8) J. 

3.) The Auxiliary verbs of mood and tense. The auxiliary 
verbs of mood, as / can, I may, I must, imply the relation of 

* ©rnmmnttf, § 10. f Organism, § 50. \ Drgntitem, § 56, 57. 


8 INTRODUCTION. 

mood ; and those of tense, e. g. / have (loved), imply the rela- 
tion of time (§ 8 *). 

4.) Numerals definite, as two, four ; and indefinite, as many, 
much, all. They seem to be primitively notional words, but 
now merely express the relation of number and quantity (§ 8). 

5.) Prepositions appear to be words which have lost their 
notional value, and now merely point out the relations of an 
object to the predicate ; viz. that of place: he lives in town ; — 
that of time: he left us after dinner ; — and, if employed instead 
of case, the relation of causality : guilty of a crime (Lat. crimi- 
nis); to starve with hunger (hat. fame). 

6.) Conjunctions. They are either pronouns, as when, then, 
so, that, or other relational words, as also, but, though. They 
express the relations of one sentence to another. 

7.) All Adverbs which imply relations to the speaker. Such 
are all Pronominal adverbs, as here, there, then, hither, thither ; 
the adverbs of mood, as not, perhaps, indeed ; the adverbs of 
time, as now, soon, lately, yesterday ; the adverbs of place, as 
above, below, forwards, backwards ; and some adverbs of quan- 
tity and intensity, as scarcely, only, too, very, most (§ 8). 

Observation. — Interjections imply neither notions nor relations of notions, 
and are not necessarily connected with the sentence; we therefore do not 
consider them as parts of the sentence, but rather as sounds produced by 
the immediate impulse of the sensations of joy, sorrow, admiration, &c. In 
German, joy is expressed by af) ! af) ! fietfa ! ju#fjet ! sorrow by a# ! 0& ! 
admiration by ei ! of) ! disgust by ft ! pfui! The expressions toefyel Cfy Wtbl 
webe btr! woe to you ; teiber I alas! pfut ber ©ctyanbe! for shame ! ©ottfofc ! 
thank God / and others of the same description, which are frequently em- 
ployed as interjections, are to be regarded in the light of elliptical sen- 
tences. 

§11. 
A Sentence (@A$), i. e. a thought expressed by words, (e.g. 
men die, or men are mortal,) consists of two members, viz. the 
subject (men), i. e. the notion of a person or thing spoken of, 
and the predicate (die, mortal), i. e. the notion of an activity 
which the speaker refers to the subject. The relation of the 
predicate to the subject is termed the Predicative relation, and 
the combination of notions, which is the result of this relation, 

* ©rammntif, $ 82, 83. 


INTRODUCTION. 9 

the Predicative combination ($rabtfatitfe$ @a$t>erl)dltmg) ; the 
subject and the predicate are called the Factors of the predica- 
tive combination *. The relation of the predicate to the sub- 
ject is expressed in the predicate by those forms of inflection 
which imply concord (Ror\QTVLlt\%) of notions. The sentence, 
however, denotes also the act itself, by which the speaker 
refers the predicate to the subject, which is expressed in the 
predicate by such forms of inflection as denote relations to 
the speaker ; viz. those of personality, of mood, and of time 
(§ 8). The predicate is generally expressed either by a verb, 
or by an adjective connected with the subject by the verb to 
be (§ 10). The room of the adjective, however, is frequently 
occupied by a substantive, as, this person is a thief, this person 
is of age. 

§ 12. 
The notion of an activity may be in the relation of 
concord (§11) to the notion of a person or thing, without 
any explicit affirmation on the part of the speaker : e. g. a 
mortal man, a dying woman, a large house. Such a notion 
(mortal, dying, large) is called an Attributive, the relation in 
which it is placed is termed an Attributive relation, and the 
peculiar combination which results from this relation receives 
the name of the Attributive combination (5lttVi6ttttt)e3 ©ai^Ws 
Jaltntj? f). The attributive combination consists of two factors, 
viz. the attributive factor (mortal, dying, large), and the sub- 
stantive, to which it refers (33qkl)im$$V0QXt), man, woman, 
house. The attributive is generally expressed by an adjective, 
and the relation of concord is in German, as in the ancient 
languages, pointed out by the inflection of the adjective, e. g. 

em ©terfcttcNf Wenfdb, cute @ter6enb=e %tau, em gro^eg $au$. 

The place of the attributive adjective, however, is frequently 
occupied either by a substantive in apposition, e. g. William 
the Conqueror, or by a substantive in the genitive case, e. g. 
the father's house, the king's brother. 

§ 13. 
A notion may also be in the relations of causality, i. e. cause 
or effect ; of locality, of time, or of manner to a predicate : 

* @r<imttiftttf, § 182. f ©rnmmnttf, § 183, 184. 


10 INTRODUCTION. 

this constitutes the Objective relation, from which results the 
Objective combination (D6jecthK$ ©a^et^a(tni^), — e. g. He 
writes a letter, he lives in the country, he "works in the night, 
he acts honestly % The objective, like the predicative com- 
bination, consists of two factors : the objective factor (a letter, 
in the country, in the night, honestly), and the predicate to 
which it refers (writes, lives, works, acts). The various kinds 
of relation, in the objective factor, are expressed in different 
ways : the relation of causality is originally expressed by cases; 
those of place and of time, by prepositions ; and that of man- 
ner, by adverbs or adverbial forms f. In those languages, 
however, the inflective power of which is still prominent, such 
as the German, even place, time, and manner may be expressed 
by cases ; whilst on the other hand, in languages like the En- 
glish, the inflective power of which is very limited, the relation 
of causality also is for the most part expressed by prepositions. 

Observation. — The subject of a sentence (man) may in all cases assume 
the form of an attributive combination (frail man), whilst the predicate 
may take that of an objective combination (delights in amusements). The 
attributive factor, again (frail), may be modified by an objective, and the 
objective by an attributive factor ; so that both of them are converted into 
combinations, — viz. the attributive factor into an objective combination, 
and the objective factor into an attributive combination:— e.g. Man, frail 
by nature, delights in transient amusements. Thus it is evident, that every 
sentence, to whatever extent the relations which it comprehends may have 
been multiplied, is composed of only three kinds of combinations, — the pre- 
dicative, attributive, and objective. 

§ 14. 
Notional words (§ 1) come to be members of a sentence, 
and to take part in the expression of a thought, only in as far 
as they are factors in one of the three combinations ; and the 
degree of their importance in the construction of the sentence, 
depends entirely on the place which they occupy in the com- 
bination to which they belong. The two factors of one and 
the same combination are not of equal importance. In the 
predicative combination, the predicate is the principal no- 
tion ; and, therefore, the predicate is the principal factor 

* ©rmirnintif, § 185. f Organism, § 68, 69. 


INTRODUCTION. 11 

(.fjauptttwrt). In the same way, the attributive and the objec- 
tive factors express the principal notions, and therefore are 
the principal factors of the attributive and objective combina- 
tions. The subordinate factors, on the other hand, are the 
subject in the predicative, the substantive referred to in the 
attributive, and the verb or adjective referred to in the ob- 
jective combination. When, however, the attributive or objec- 
tive factor is represented by a pronoun, or other relational 
word, — e. g. my friend, he told me, he lives here, he sleeps per- 
haps ; — it is not considered as the principal, but as the sub- 
ordinate factor, as appears by its subordinate accentuation 
(§ 15). By means of this subordination of the factors, the 
two members of the predicative combination do not express 
two thoughts, but only one thought : e. g. the dog barks, man 
is mortal ; and the two factors of the attributive, as well as of 
the objective combination, do not express two notions, but one 
notion — viz. the former, that of a person or thing modified 
by the attribute, as, a wise man, a large house ; and the latter, 
that of an activity modified by the object, as, to write a letter, 
to live in town *. 

§15. 
Every notional word in the sentence, except the subject, 
stands in some relation to another word. These words, there- 
fore, must be regarded as consisting of two constituent parts, 
one representing the notion itself, and the other its relation. 
The notion is expressed by the stem, i. e. by the word itself, 
in a shape not yet modified by inflection ; the relation of the 
word to another word is represented either by a termination, 
or by a relational word which stands in the place of a termi- 
nation : e. g. father-5, of the father, to the father, \ov-ed, has 
spoken ; in which father, lov, spoken, are the stems expressing 
notion, and s, of to, ed, has, the signs signifying the relation. 
These signs of relation are subordinate to the stems, in the 
same manner as in the combination the factor referred to is 
subordinate to the principal factor. In all derivative words, 
also, the notion itself is to be distinguished from the relation 
by which it is modified, and in virtue of which the derivative 

* ©rfimttirttif, § 14, 15. 


12 INTRODUCTION. 

differs from the stem, and from other derivatives. In the se- 
condary derivatives, found-ling, might-y, thank-ful, the notion 
itself is expressed by the primary form found, might, thank, 
whilst the terminations ling,y,ful, imply the relation by which 
the notion is modified. The terminations are subordinate to 
the primary form which contains the notion. 

Accentuation (SBetonung) serves to express the unity of a 
notion, as well as the subordination of its constituent parts, 
not only in the combination, but also in each of its factors, 
and in secondary derivatives. Unity of the notion is repre- 
sented by unity of the accent (Xon) ; the subordination of the 
constituent parts is pointed out by a corresponding subordi- 
nation of the accents with which they are pronounced. 

The Principal accent (.fjattptton) falls upon the principal 
factor of the combination, and upon the notional constituent 
of each factor, i. e. the stem of each inflective word as well as 
of each secondary derivative. The Subordinate accent (untCV= 
#eorbmte Xon)» on the other hand, falls upon the subordinate 
factor of the combination, and upon the signs of relation of 
each factor. Thus, in the expressions, man is mortal, a skil- 
ful teacher, he writes a letter, of gold, by art, has told, lov-ed, 
found-ling, thank-fid, the principal accent is taken by mortal, 
ski fid, letter, gold, art, told, lov, found, thank ; whilst the sub- 
ordinate accent falls upon man, teacher, writes, of, by, has, ed, 
ling, full *. 

Observation. — Accentuation, founded upon the value of words in the 
ssntence, and of syllables in each word, according to the distinctions here 
laid down of notions and relations, is more uniformly observed and more 
strictly attended to in the German than in the other modern languages. 
The German language, moreover, requires a stronger and more decided 
accentuation, by means of a rise, fall, and varied impetus of the voice, than 
that which is admitted by other languages. Foreigners, therefore, in order 
to speak German correctly, have not only to arrive at an accurate discri- 
mination of the syllables and words which require to be accentuated from 
those which do not, but also to appropriate to themselves the peculiar 
energy of German accentuation. 

§16. 
All signs of relation (§ 1) have the subordinate accent. 

* ©mmmntif, § 15. 


INTRODUCTION. IS 

We distinguish, however, those which are unacce?ited (tonio$), 
as the terminations in speak-er, gold-en, might-y, and the pro- 
noun it, from those which are semi-accented (Ijal6t0t1t#), as 
the terminations in wis-dom, friend-ship, lawful, and the auxi- 
liary verbs has, will, shall. In German, all terminations of 
derivation as well as inflection are unaccented, except the 
signs of derivation : fc&aft, ttyum, kill, tin#, ttnq, (Kit, fat, at, «t, 
hav, fallt, l)b% icbt, which have the semi-accent. The prefixes, 
fce, er, W, ent, ^er, and the augment #e, are also unaccented. 
The semi-accent, on the other hand, is taken by all relational 
words (§ 10), except the articles, by the pronoun e$, and by 
the preposition ^u, if standing as a sign of the supine : e. g. £U 
fprec$jeit, to speak. When relational words are inflected, the 
stem has the semi-accent, and the termination is unaccented, as 

in metn=en, {> a 6-ct, tt>evb=e. 

The regular accentuation of words and syllables is different 
from Emphasis (0?cbetOll), i. e. the stress laid upon those words 
or syllables, which the speaker wishes particularly to point 
out : e. g. e X )pxid)t (it is he who speaks, not another), 3 u bem 
2?ater (to, not from the father), CtUC 5iivfN 11 (a princ-ess, not a 
prince). 

§17. 

The Eurythmy (2Do&iflan#) of whole sentences and of their 
constituent combinations, as well as of single words, consists 
in a just proportion of syllables accented and unaccented, or 
semi-accented. Eurythmy not only pleases the ear by variety 
of accent, but essentially contributes to render speech intelli- 
gible. For the unity of thought in a sentence, and the unity 
of notion in combinations and single words, as well as the sub- 
ordination of their constituents (§ 15), can be more distinctly 
pointed out by accentuation, in proportion as the rhythmical 
shape of combination and words is more perfect. The most 
perfect shape of words, in point of eurythmy, is the disyllabic, 
in which only one termination is connected with a stem of one 
syllable, as in speaker, worth-y, lov-ed. On the other hand, 
words like ^eucb'let'ifc&^fr^er (most hypocritical,) which af- 
ford an accumulation of a great many unaccented syllables, 
are contrary to the laws of eurythmy ; we therefore term them 
Spurious forms (9lftCrf OfmCtt) . 


14? INTRODUCTION. 

Accentuation having assumed a very prominent station in 
German (§ 15, Obs.), it has come to be a principle of this lan- 
guage to avoid, in single words as well as in the compound 
expressions of notions or relations, such forms as are offensive 
to eurythmy, and, where they exist, to correct them. With 
this view, two unaccented syllables, or two unaccented words, 
are frequently contracted into one by means of dropping a 

vowel: e.g. lo&^-te, fjanb^etn, #rbg4er, 2?at=ern, instead of (oS^e-te, 
£attb=el-en, grbj^e&ter, $a>er;en; and am 23erge, Ijat er'3 $efacjt? 
tjr£ genus ? instead of, an bem $ev#e, t>at er e£ $efa£t ? ijr eg 

$ettU# ? In the same way terminations of inflection are fre- 
quently dropped : e. g. bem 2?ater, mtt 2frob mib 2£em, alt 
(gifen, instead of bem 2?afrer=e, mtt Stofc* tmb mtt 2ftetn=e, alt-eg 

©fen. This mode of dropping a vowel or a termination is 
applied especially to relational words, because they generally 
have only the subordinate accent. 

The natural disposition of language to exhibit unity of no- 
tion, by the rhythmical unity of the expression, also leads to 
the contraction of whole combinations, consisting of two or 
more words, into one single word. This is chiefly effected by 
way of Composition .• e. g. steam-boat (instead of boat driven 
by steam) ; and by way of Ellipsis, e. g. the learned (instead 
of, the learned men). In composition, the two factors of a 
combination are only contracted into one word, the factor re- 
ferred to taking the shape and accent of a termination: in 
ellipsis, on the other hand, the factor referred to is entirely 
omitted. Both modes of reducing a combination to a rhyth- 
mical unity of expression, are more extensively employed in 
German than in the other modern languages; composition 
especially is very commonly resorted to (see § 53), and the 
frequent use of ellipsis has already been mentioned (§ 7 *). 

Observation. — Compound expressions, like, to make one's appearance , to 
make one's excuse or an apology, to make one's escape, and, at the same time, 
in order to, on account of, are not conformable to the German idiom, which 
requires unity of notions and relations to be as far as possible represented 
by unity in the form of expression : all these phrases, therefore, are ren- 
dered in German by single words, as, erfcjKinen, entfchulbtgen, entfliefKtt, 
and jugteicfr urn, wegen. 

* ©rnmmnttf, § 17. 


INTRODUCTION. 15 

§18. 

The German language, together with the ancient Gothic, 
Norse, and Anglo-Saxon, constitute the family of the Teutonic 
(©ermanifcfre) languages; from which the Swedish, Danish, 
and Dutch languages also descend. The English, as far as it 
is derived from the Anglo-Saxon, is nearly related to the Ger- 
man : we shall find, accordingly, that a great many words, 
and a still greater variety of forms of derivation and inflection, 
as well as of syntactical forms, are common to both languages. 

The popular language of the different German provinces 
affords many dialects, which differ more or less essentially one 
from another, but may all of them be comprehended in the 
general division of the Upper-German and Low-German dia- 
lects (C&evbeutfdbe anb Sfteberbeutfcbe D3?unbart). The former 
of these is more rough and hard, the latter more soft and flow- 
ing ; the Low-German also is more nearly related to the En- 
glish idiom. At an early period, however, in consequence of 
the progress of civilization, a language was formed by a com- 
bination of the Upper- and Low-German dialects, which has 
become the language of the educated part of the nation, and 
is called the High-German language (bte $OC{)beUtfd[K ©pfCtcfre). 
This High-German language, which differs from the popular 
dialects of the different German provinces, has, since the time 
of the Reformation, been generally adopted as the only written 

language (©c&riftfpradbe). 

As the High- German language originates from a combination 
of the Upper- and Low-German dialects, it cannot adopt any 
words or forms of expression which do not exist in one of these 
dialects. Whether words or forms of expressions, existing in 
the dialects, be adopted in the High-German language, and 
therefore considered as good High-German, or not, depends 
entirely on the practice ((5prad)$e6raud)) of the educated part 
of the nation, which is the only authority referred to in this 
respect # . 

§19. 
The German nation has never been subject to any of those 
political changes, which have influenced the languages of the 

* ©rnmmatif, § 19, 20. 


16 INTRODUCTION. 

other modern nations, some of whom have adopted languages 
which are the result of a mixture of two or more different 
elements. Civilization, however, being in a great measure 
received from abroad, and a frequent intercourse being kept 
up with foreign nations, the German language has adopted 
many foreign words, particularly the names of foreign pro- 
ductions of nature and art, and terms employed in the sciences, 
arts, and literature, and those relative to the establishments of 
the church, the law, and government. 

Many foreign words, on being received into the German 
language, have at the same time undergone some alterations 
in their form, in their accentuation, and even in their signifi- 
cation. 

In point of form, the words adopted from the modern lan- 
guages are to be distinguished from those taken from the Latin, 
and from the Greek through the medium of Latin. Words 
taken from modern languages commonly do not alter their 
form, and in that case they are in general pronounced in the 
same way, and for the most part have the same orthography, 
as in the languages from which they have been taken ; e. g. @e= 
tlie, GtjjCtfaltei*, ^iner. In substantives of Latin or Greek origin, 
the terminations a, e, es, os, us, urn, are commonly dropped, 
as in 9?atuv, ®ofttm 5 Manual, ^valat, Sltoofat, ^ilofopb, 
3)?anbat, @tatut, $lbjectttf. The Latin termination is, in mas- 
culine substantives, is also dropped, e. g. ^arbtnal, ©insular ; 
but in feminine substantives it is changed into e, e. g. piaffe, 
^3^rafc The termination ium is dropped in some, as $lbt>et6, 
(ffil, and retained in others, as ©tubtUW, ^imijreviltm. 

Moreover, the following terminations are altered : 


ans into 

ant, 

e. g. ^onfonam, 

e?is — 

cut, 

— @tubem, 

antia — 

«& 

— Sclerals 

entia — 

etft 

— 3nboien$. 

itia — 

% 

- 3uffia- 

tas — 

tat, 

— .Sumanttat. 

10 — 

ten, 

— OMiajon. 

ia — 

ie or ci (a;) 

— qj&ttofopine, ^olijei 

ensis — 

enfer, 

— 9Itt>enienfer. 


INTRODUCTION. 17 

AIL foreign verbs, from whatever language they are taken, 
assume the termination imt, as ve.qiren, ffubhm There are, 
however, many foreign words which have been admitted into 
German at an early period, and which, by being constantly 
employed in popular language, have been entirely assimilated 
in their form to words originally German. Of this description 
are, £brpev (corpus), $b6cf (peuple), gutter (pulvis), genjter 
(fenestra), 9(6t (Abbas), $Vo6ff (propositus), and many others, 
which are pronounced and written like words originally Ger- 
man. 

The Germans usually do not, like the English, assimilate 
the accentuation of foreign words to that of their own idiom, 
but leave them their original accentuation. Thus e. g. in Qti- 
#tnaf, j?arbinal, SRajefiat, Slbuofat, $vo6lem, the principal 
accent is laid upon the last syllable ; and in all foreign verbs, 
as flub it en, fttHr en, it falls upon the penultimate. 

In general, it is not correct to employ foreign words, if 
words originally German can be found which are equivalent 

to them, as fTattiren, refujTren, instead of fdbroeicfteli?, au^fdbla^en. 
Many foreign words, however, have been received, though 
words equivalent to them existed in German ; but such words 
have commonly adopted a peculiar sense, different from their 
original signification, as well as from that of their equivalents 
in German. In this way, e.g. <)3e&el (mob), *JJrtn$ (son, brother, 
or other relation of a reigning prince), Officer (officer in the 
army), tyulvtt (gunpowder, or any artificial powder), ^Juber 
(powder for the hair), 20?inij?Cf (minister of a sovereign), 
marfcfciven (to march, applied only to the army), fpagtfttl (to 
take a walk), differ on the one hand from peuple, prince, 
qfficier, pulvis, poudre, ministre, marcher, spatiari, and on the 
other from s 2?olf, $iujl, banner, ©tau6, Stewr, ©e^en. 

V80. 

Grammar teaches the value and signification of notional 
words, and of the signs of relation (§ 1) ; and the proper use 
of both, according to their respective signification. 

According to this view, Grammar is divided into two parts, 
— Etymology and Syntax. Etymology treats of words by 


18 INTRODUCTION. 

themselves, of their classification, their formation, and the 
alteration of their forms by derivation and inflection. Syntax, 
on the other hand, treats of the union of words into sentences 
by means of the Predicative, Attributive, and Objective Com- 
binations (§ 11, 12, 13 ; ) in all their different forms. 


Part I. 
ETYMOLOGY. 


SECTION I. — Of the Formation of Words. 

Chapter I. — Of Articulate Soimds. 

§21. 

In the study of Grammar, in order to arrive at the knowledge 
of the various transformations of words, we are obliged to de- 
compose all Words into Sounds, which accordingly are to be 
considered as the elements of the words*. The sounds of 
speech are articulate, i. e. they are formed by the action of 
the Organs of Speech; by which term we understand the 
mouth, and particularly the moveable parts of the mouth, viz. 
the Palate, the Tongue, and the Lips. Articulate sounds are 
represented in writing by the letters of the Alphabet, which 
are nearly the same in German as in English. The letters of 
the German alphabet and their sounds are the following: — 


%26. 


21 

a 

a sounds like a m father. § 23. 

99 

6 

b . 

as in English. §. 26. 

e 

c 

c 

like c in Cato, like ts in wits. 


b 
e 

d . 
e 

as in English. § 26. 
like e in there, bed. § 23. 

% 
@ 

•0 

f 
I) 

f . 

g • 
h . 

as in English. 

like g in God, give. § 26. 

as in English. 


i 

i 

like i in bit, ee in deer. \ 23. 


i 
i 

i 

J 

k . 

1 

like y in year. 
as in English, 
ditto. 

3fe 

m 

m 

ditto. 

* Organism, § 12. 
c2 


9? 

n 

n 

D 



o 

$ 

p 

P 

Q 

q 

q 

m 

r 

r 

© 

« 

s 


* 

ss 

z 

t 

t 

u 

« 

u 

% 

t? 

V 

m 

n> 

\v 

X 

j 4 

X 

3> 

9 

y 

3 

3 

z 


20 ETYMOLOGY. 

n sounds as in English. 

like o in rose, God. § 23. . 

as in English. 
,. ditto. 

ditto. 
.. ditto. § 28. 

like ss in less. 

as in English. 

o 

like u in bull, and oo in £oo&. § 23. 
\lkef in father. 
like z> in vine, even. 
like .r in wax, box. 
. like i. § 23. 
like & in wants. 

To these we must add the following letters, which also ex- 
press simple sounds : — 

d a sounds like a in shame. % 24. 

6 o ... like the French eu infeur. % 24. 

u u ... like the French u in pur, chute. 

t& th ... almost like t. [the Greek). 

plj ph ... likey (occurs only in words derived from 

d) ch ... like the Scottish ch in loch. 

fcb sch ... like sh in shame. 

The names of the vowels are, as in English, those of the 
sounds which they express, except ypsilon for y. The names 
of consonants are also the same as in English, e. g. be, pe, ha, 
ku, for 6, p, f, q ; except jod for j, ha for p, wra for v, we for 
JV, and iks for £. 

| 22. 

Those articulate sounds, in the formation of which the ac- 
tion of the palate, tongue, and the lips is predominant, assume 
a distinct and specific character: they are called Consonants. 
Those sounds, on the contrary, which are formed rather by 
the voice passing through the cavity of the mouth more or 
less enlarged in different directions, than by the action of the 
palate, tongue, or lips, have a less distinct and specific cha- 
racter ; they are called Vowels. The articulation of consonants 
is more perfect than that of vowels. Mute Consonants (@tarrc 


ETYMOLOGY. 21 

(Sonfbnanten), considered as constituents of speech, are the 
most perfect sounds of all, each of them being the result of a 
distinct and peculiar action of its respective organ. The Semi- 
consonants* are also sounds modified by the action of the 
palate, tongue, or lips, but less perfect than mute consonants. 
They are, as it were, intermediate sounds between vowels and 
mute consonants, since vowels, e. g. t and a, frequently pass 
into the semi-consonants j and ft). Mute and semi-consonants 
belong each of them only to one of the organs, the palate, the 
tongue, or the lips. Each Liquid Consonant, on the contrary, 
rather results from the combined action of two organs ; viz. X 
and I are formed by the palate and tongue, and n and m by 
the tongue and lips. This constitutes a material difference 
between the mute and semi-consonants on the one hand, and 
the liquid consonants on the other. 

Articulate sounds are classed, first, according to the degree 
of more or less perfect articulation, into Vowels, Semi-conso- 
nants, Mute and Liquid Consonants; and, secondly, according 
to the organs by the action of which they are formed into 
Palatal, Lingual, and Labial sounds, (^C^UaittC, 3 u t1#enlattte, 
imb Cippenlame). 

§23. 
Vowels. 

The sounds of vowels are not in German, as in English, 
materially altered by their position : they generally remain the 
same in all situations. 

% e. g. in ©cljant, 2?ater, sounds as it does in father, but 
never as in talk or shame : % e. g. in 2?ij? , tit, sounds like i 
in bit or ee in thee, and never like i in bite or in shirt: U, e. g. 
in 13ud), §UJ?, sounds like u in rude, bull, or oo in book, but 
never like u in but, use, or busy : £), as in 9?ofc, (Sott, sounds 
like o in rose, most, but not as in on, do, move. 

There is some variety in the pronunciation of c, depending 
upon the primary vowel from which it depends f. If e origi- 

* They are in some Grammars improperly named Semivowels. German Gram- 
marians term them ©ptrflttten. See DrgmuSm, § 16. ©rantmatif, § 29. 

f The vowels c and o are Secondary vowels, i, a, and u being the three Primary 
vowels, corresponding to the three organs, palate, tongue, and lips ; o always ori- 
ginates from a or u ; e from i or n. Upon the difference of primary and secondar 
sounds, see GJrammrttif, § 25, 2C, 27. 


22 ETYMOLOGY. 

nates from i, it has an acute sound like the French e ferme ; 
e. g. in the first syllables of leBen, #eBen, Bremen, frel;len, 

I C fell, (to live, give, break, steal, read,) which were in old Ger- 
man, ItBan, #t6ail, Bvtfan, &c. ; it has the same sound in the 
prefix Be, and in the augment $e, e. g. in BeiKirten, $eloBt. 
If, on the other hand, c originates from a, it has a broad and 
open sound, like the English a in name, fate, e. g. in \z%t, fevit 
(last, far). $1% ©dbtttety .gjevr, in the first syllable of (Frbe, 
(?rnte, and in the termination of the infinitive, as #eBetl, leBen 
(originally $tBan, liBcm). When e stands as an unaccented 
termination, as in 9?ofc, £ieBe, ^imBe, it is always pronounced, 
and not mute as in the English words/ate, spite, sense, 

g) sounds like i, except in words of Greek origin, in which 
it has the sound of the French u, e. g. ^3l)t;ft'f, &;mptOttt. It 
never has the power of a consonant, as in the English year, 
young. Its use in words originally German is rather anti- 
quated. 

§ 24. 

The letters d, b, it are termed modified sounds (Umiattte), 
because they are modifications of the vowels a, 0, U. When 
a primary derivative word (§ 2) which has one of these vowels, 
assumes, either by way of derivation, or in inflection, a termi- 
nation containing the vowel t or c ; the vowels a, 0, and u are 
commonly modified or softened, as 2&ft Idjlta,, Qcwb £anbcf, 

«0om .jejbrndben, ©oljtt ©bljme, 23uv# SBuxqcv, .gut .gitte. The 

modified vowel has been retained in many words, although 
the termination e has been dropped, as XijilV (Xylite), ©lucf 
((ScUtcfe), ©cfttj)(. In a few instances, however, vowels have 
assumed the sounds of ii, b, it, in a way independent of termi- 
nations; e. g. in the radical verbs gal)Un, riidben, IbfcfKU, 
tuqen, tvii^en, in which d, b, it originate from I 

The sound of the modified vowel d (fcfmmeil, fame, ()dtte) is 
like that of a in shame, came, and differs very little from that 
of the broad and open e (§ 23), which frequently has come in 
place of d, e. g. in (e$t (latest), BefTet (from Bag), @efe£ (from 
@a$). The sound of b (Ijbven, fcf)bn) is the same with that of 
the French eu in Jieur, jeune. The sound of it (.jjtiteil, .Otitic) 
is that of the French u mJJute, lutte. 


ETYMOLOGY. 23 

When the sounds of two vowels are combined into one 
sound, both of them being however still heard, such com- 
pound sound is called a Diphthong. There are in German 
the following Diphthongs : — ai, e. g. in .gain, $£atfe ; ait, 
which is also modified into alt, e. g. in .%cm$ .0aufer, 20?att$ 

2)?aufe; et (ey) in Jett, mem, fern (ferm); and ett, e. g. in nett, 

ttUU The sound of et is the same with that of i in mine, spite; 
that of ett corresponds with that of oy in joy ; the sound of at 
is expressed in the English affirmation aye ; and that of CiU. is 
the same with ou in house, sound. 

§ 25. 
Vowels are either short, as in $all, ^'tilU, $ett, flitl, t?olt, 
voliig, Gutter, ^utte ; or long, as in fam, fame, ettuc}, bit, m% 
Ofbt&e, SBlllU SBttit&C Diphthongs are always long. Short 
vowels always harden and sharpen the consonant which fol- 
lows, and if it is a liquid, they frequently produce that change 
of the consonant which may be called an augmentation of the 
final consonant (see § 29). The sharpness of the consonant, 
produced by shortening the preceding vowel, is marked in 
writing by doubling the consonant. In this way vowels are 
generally known to be short by the consonant, following being 
either doubled, as in ^all, Ritttt, @0tt, or augmented, as in 
%tlb, Rinb, $0\% jjavt. We must, however, consider as ex- 
ceptions from this rule, the words .gerb, 39a tt, ^fevft, vQtOnb, 
and some others, in which a long vowel stands before an aug- 
mented final consonant, as well as the monosyllabic termina- 
tions of derivation or of inflection, and monosyllabic relational 
words (§ 1), which, having a subordinate accentuation (§ 16), 
neither sharpen nor double their final consonant, although 
standing after a short vowel, as fBiitfrtt, cplbsetl, lc6=et, and 
6tlt, fjat, an, VOU, mil, C6, l;m. The consonant is doubled, 
however, in the relational words farm, Wilt, fell, ttWm, Warm, 
bemt, batm. 

Long vowels do not in any manner affect the consonant 
following; they may in general be distinguished by the con- 
sonant following being neither doubled nor augmented, as in 
SBtob, £o&, 0a6, 23(ut, f<$bn, OUt, fam. Vowels, however, are 
often distinguished as long by particular signs of length CX^tytt 5 


24 ETYMOLOGY. 

Ull^eidben), i. e. letters which are not pronounced, but only 
mark the length of the vowel to which they are joined. They 
are: — 

1. The reduplication of the vowels for a, C, and c, as in $Uil, 
(Ba&U leer, See, Wtwt, 3)?oo»; 

2. The letter e for the vowel i, as in l;ier, &>iev, liefc, Xriefc, 
©ttel, $tene; 

3. The letter fy for all vowels, as in ^Cttyr, .ga^H, nafrren, 

tt>al;len, mc^r, fefjr, ©ofw, D()r, £ol?le, &bf;ler, 3fr|>re, .gujw, 

©tltfcl, ^tt^ner, ©tittle ; — to the vowel i, however, this sign of 
length is applied only in the pronouns i(;m, ijlt, iljncil, tt>r, 
#rer. 

Observation.— The augment of final consonants (e. g. in balb, fort, 2Peft, 
25urg) must be distinguished from some consonants, especially t, b, which 
are joined to final consonants as terminations of derivation or inflection, 
as in ©eburt, fiafyrt, 9J?agb, (Semakbe, lcb=t, lo6;te, geroofjmt, and in which 
the vowels are long. By the final consonant (^luMdtlt) of words, we gene- 
rally, and unless the contrary be explicitly stated, mean the last consonant 
of roots or primary derivatives, and not that of the termination, which the 
word may have assumed in consequence of derivation or of inflection. 

§ 26. 
Consonants, 

By Mute Consonants we understand the Palatal g, f, d) ; 
the Lingual b, t, tf); and the Labial b, p, f (t»). We distin- 
guish them moreover into Tenues f, t, p, Mediae $, b, 6, and 
Aspiratae db, tf), f (v). The hissing sounds f$ (g) and £ are 
secondary sounds to the tenuis t. The tenues f, t, p, and the 
aspirate f have the same sounds in German as in English. 
The sound of V, which is employed only as an initial letter, 
does not diifer from that off. Instead of the tenuis^? of the 
English and Low-German idioms (path, pipe, pound), the 
Upper-German dialect frequently employs an aspirate pf 
(^fab, $feife, ^furib), which has been adopted in the High- 
German language. 

The sound of the aspirate t(} is different from that of the 
English th; it scarcely differs from that of t; as in Zi)0Y, 
rctt;, D?0ll;. There is in English no sound similar to that of 
the aspirate :i), but it entirely corresponds with that of the 


ETYMOLOGY. 25 

Scottish and Irish ch and gh in loch or lough (lake), laigh 
(low). When, in words of Greek origin, db stands as initial 
before 0, C, U, or before a consonant, as in @[)or, (Sljrij?, &V0- 
flif, it is sounded like t It has, however, retained its natural 
sound in @(}ao£. In words originally German, d) is sounded 
like f only when it stands before f (?), as in £l?acb3, JVadbfcn, 
£)#$> Ddbfcn (like wax, oxen) ; provided that the f does not be- 
long to a termination, or to another part of a compound, as 

in wacfcfam, Otodb'-fudbt, nacfcfeben, $3ud)s$ 08\xdx$). 

The mediae b and 6 in general have the same sounds as in 
English, as in bem, Sovn, $aben, SBern, ®ev#, Btefce, gefcen ; 5 
is pronounced like the English g in give, God, good, but never 
like that letter in genius, gesture. 

The three mediae b, 6, #, when employed as final sounds, 
and not followed by any vowel, are considerably hardened, 
so as to approach to the corresponding tenues : in .jjctb, 2tit>, 
the media is nearly pronounced as in heart, bite ; in £06, £icb, 
as in hope, leap : the same change takes place in the pronun- 
ciation of the final q : the Lower-Saxon dialect even aspirates 
its sound, so as to make it similar to that of cf). After the 
liquid w, however, the Q is never hardened, but always pro- 
nounced as in the English words thing, sing, singer (not as in 

linger) : thus, Sin.g, ©efang, ©anger. 

The hissing sounds £ and 3, being modifications of the 
tenuis t 5 are commonly employed in German words where t 
occurs in the corresponding English words ; e. g. %l\§, foot ; 
$X0$ 9 great ; 6eij? en, bite ; fcf)ie|?en, shoot ; £U, to ; fitym, tame ; 
fill, toll; ^a$e, cat. When the £, which never is initial, 
stands after a long vowel, as in iveij?, 3)?ag, ffagen, it sounds 
like c in mice, truce ; after a short vowel, as in 9ii(j, Ru§, £Ro$, 
it is pronounced like 55 in kiss, loss, less. The sound of $, e. «*. 
in ©dfjitt^e, 3% is like that of & in shirts, wits. @ is pro- 
nounced exactly like J before e, i, d, and it, ei, ett, till, and like 
F before a, 0, U, and au: it does not occur in words originally 
German, except in the formation of d) and cf. 

di occurs only in foreign words, and in the German words 
%% «)5ere, 9ftj?e. Its sound is a compound of f and f, and it 
is never pronounced soft as is done when it stands as an 
initial in English. 


26 ETYMOLOGY. 

Observation.— There are fixed laws in the change of mute consonants, by 
which German words differ from corresponding words in English (§ 18), as 
appears from the following comparison : — 

In English. In German. 

k final, break, sake, seek, oak, #. bredfren, ©acfre, fucfcen, (5td;e, wa* 

awake. $en. 

t initial.to, ten, tear, toe. 3. jn, ge^rt, ^afjre, Sefje. 

- /««/. bite, white, smite, shoot. £. bei£en, roeif, fc&meifjen, fd)kfm. 

- — sit, wit, cat, short. 3. fl^cn, 2Big, 0a|e, fuvg. 

p ini/iff/. pound, path, pole, pool. pf.^Jfunb, tyfab, ]}(abU s JJfll&(- 

- final, sleep, deep, hope, ape. f. fdbfafcil, tief, ^Offeit, ^Iffe. 

d initial, dove, drink, drive, deaf. t. Xrttl6e, trinfen, tveibCtt, tailK 

- — do, deal, door, dear. tt). t&tlll, X&eU, Xfciir, t&eueY. 

- /nrt/. loud, bride, blood, ride. r. faut, 29vailt, 2>fat, Vt'ttCrt. 
ch imfta/. choose, cherry, chew. f. ftefen, £tvfciK, fatten. 

— ^sdl breach, reach, rich. #. 2>VU#, VCtC&Cn, m#. / 

th iw^ifl/. think, thorn, thief, though. b. benfen, Sorn, 2>ieb,.®4#. ^y^ 7 

— /wo/, father, mother, weather. t. s 2?ater, 5)itlttCV, ^Better. 7 

- — brother, fathom, feather, b. 2?VUber, $abcn, $Cbev. 
f initial, four, full, fowl, father. V. vk\\ VfrU, 2?0gef, 2?ater. 

- /?*«/. deaf, life, wife, staff, loaf. b. taub, lefcen, 2Betb,@tab, Qalb. 
«\\ final, laugh, high, light, right. #. I ad) en, &0C&, IHcfct, 9&#t< 

v j^mo/. have, shave, love, dove. b. fraben, fcl;aben, Iteben, Xaube. 

§27. 

Mute consonants, standing after short vowels, are generally 
hardened; and this hardness is expressed in writing by doubling 
the letter: as in bitten, ftatt, fdrfajf, fibber, which differ from 
BietCII, ©taat, ©cfclaf, Wieber. However, we always write if in- 
stead of ft, $ instead of $, and ff instead of §§ ; e. g. DtOif, ©tOCf, 
$U& J?Ct$e, fBiffc, Ouiflen, 9?iijfc : ft if not followed by a vowel 
(an anomaly of orthography), is not doubled at all ; e. g. £Bift 
j\UJ? 5 9?ltft 9?uf*dben. The aspirate cf) is never doubled (after 
short vowels) ; e. g. ©CtcfjC, jTacf), ©tidf?. 

When a lo.ng vowel, standing before a media, is shortened 
by derivation or inflection, the media is frequently changed 
into a tenuis ; as in flie^err, fitter' , kibetl, lilt, fteben, fott When, 
at the same time, the tenuis t is added to the media as a 
termination, the media is commonly changed into the corre- 
sponding aspirate ; as in ©cfcladbt, 2utd)t, Wlad)U ttiocbte, from 

fcblaqen, 6ieqen, ntQgeti ; and ©ift, Shrift, Irtft, from $e6en, 

fc()VCi6cu, tVCifccit. In the same way the semi-consonant i) is 


ETYMOLOGY. 27 

frequently changed into the aspirate mute d)\ as in §lud)t, 

©tit, ©efcbic&te, from flie&en, fel;en, ^efdbe&en. 

§ 28. 

The semi-consonants I), j, f, are the same with their corre- 
sponding semi-consonants in English ; that is to say, I) in i)a- 
bin, .ganb, with h in have, hand; j in 3'al)r, jlU1£, }0C{), with 
y in j/<?tfr, young, yoke. The sound of f between two vowels 
($la\t, 9?ofc) is the same as that of the English s in nose, rose. 
The pronunciation of the initial f (@ol)n, ©Cclc) is also soft ; 
almost as much as that of the English z in zone, zeal. In the 
Upper-German dialect, however, this initial f sounds very 
nearly as hard as in English. The sound of the final $, which 
is always written v, is less soft, and differs little from that of 
f? ; as in s D?CUt3, (?& @ta3, (§la3, like mouse, ice, grass, glass. 

The compound character of (d) denotes that modification 
of the semi-consonant f which is in English expressed by sh; 
as in ©dbam, fdbeincn, fdbai, vafdb, %Utf&h like shame, shine, shy, 
rash,Jlesh. Before initial liquid sounds, and before the initial 
\V, it stands in the room of the English s, but is also sounded 
like sh ; as in fdmtal, @ef)Wdfe, fdbtafen, fdbWimntcn (small, snake, 
sleep, swim). The sound of the semi-consonant W, e. g. in 
SflJeiH, Wi\% Winf, timber, is not that of the English w, but 
agrees exactly with that of v in vine, vice. 

Observation. — Semi-consonants are far more mutable than other con- 
sonants. They are frequently exchanged one for another, as in vxsq, c«a$, 
ef, compared with super, sal, sex ; or changed into mute consonants, as in 
live, give, strive, fef)Cn, few (jltbe), compared with life, gift, ftvebcn, ®i#t, 
and (in the Norse language) Gydingr. The same words frequently have 
semi-consonants in one language, and are without them in another; as in 
yoke, year, word, ivonder, 2DUCfKF, habere, compared with the Norse ok, ar, 
ord, under, okr, and with avoir ; and earth, earl, melt, compared with the 
Norse Jord, Jarl, and with fcfrme^en. 

§ 29. 
The liquid consonants r, I, 11, m, have the same sounds as 
in English. After a short vowel, their sounds become harder ; 
and in written language they are doubled ; as in 9?mt, §ClU ? 

Wia\m 9 ©tamin. 

It is peculiar to liquid sounds to combine with other con- 


28 ETYMOLOGY. 

sonants, so as to form, as it were, only one sound. Their 
sounds being naturally softer and weaker than those of mute 
consonants, we find that in all languages there is a particular 
disposition to augment them, i. e. to make their sounds stronger 
by combining them with that of another consonant. If this 
modification is applied to initial liquid sounds, we term it 
Initial Augmentation (QSetftarflttlfl be? s 2lnlattte£) ; whilst, if ap- 
plied to final ones, we call it Final Augmentation (2?erjTavflU1# be£ 
3lu$laittC3). The consonant itself, thus combined with a liquid, 
may be called the Augment, either initial ox final. The initial 
augment, placed at the beginning of the word, stands before 
its corresponding liquid ; the final augment, on the contrary, 
joined to the end of the word, follows the liquid with which it 
is combined. 

On comparing the different ancient and modern languages, 
it appears that initial augmentation is primitively effected by 
semi-consonants; as in the Anglo-Saxon hliman, to lean; 
hlaban, to load; hleapan, to leap; hjung, ring; pjmce (9?adje): 
and in the English wring (rm#en) ; sneeze, (niejjen) ; snow 
(Lat. nix). As, however, semi-consonants are easily changed 
into mute consonants (§ 28. Observation), these sounds also 
are now frequently met with as initial augments ; as in fva^Ctl 
(rogo); flleiten, to slide; Sredben, flaxen: and it may safely be 
affirmed, that almost all mute consonants and semi-consonants 
standing before an initial liquid sound are of this description. 
The semi-consonant f may, like a liquid one, be easily com- 
bined with mute sounds : it is found accordingly as an initial 
augment even before mute consonants; as in starve (batBcn); 
ftUtttttt (dumb); in the Latin stannum (tin); and the Italian 
scorza (Lat. cortex), stivali, Germ, ©ticfcl (Lat. tibialia). The 
initial augment is often enlarged into a syllable; as in the 
French fcsprit (spirit), fcspion (spy). In the same way, in 
German, the initial augment frequently appears in the form 
of the syllable $e; as in ©cfang, song; @eftUlb, sound; ©C^ 
iturmCtt, to win ; which, like other initial augments, does not 
by itself modify the signification of words, but is now em- 
ployed in particular instances as a sign of derivation as well as 
of inflection; as in ©c6irqc, ©cffint, #clie6et, vjcfcimbcn. When, 
in German grammar the term Augment is made use of, it 


ETYMOLOGY. 29 

generally applies in a particular manner to this syllabical 
augment $e. 

The final augment also is very mutable, as appears from 
comparing duniB, lamB, salT, marrow, sorrow, with btmittT, 
Oamm, the Latin sal, and Wlatf, @orge. In German the final 
augment is always a mute consonant, and commonly stands 
after a liquid consonant following a short vowel ; as in l)att, 

bcilb, fSarib, .ganb, far#, jrarf, j?ov6, .ganf. In a few words, 

however, t stands as a final augment after an aspirate con- 
sonant; as in recfrvfdbte$t, oft, ©aft. 

Observation.-— An acquaintance with these laws of initial and final aug- 
mentation is necessary, not only in order to understand the etymological 
affinity of words, but also in order to arrive at a distinct knowledge of the 
different forms of derivation and inflection. 

§ 30. 
Euphony (SflJofjUctUt) results from a just proportion of the 
different kinds of sounds, consonants and vowels, mute and 
liquid consonants, &c. in the words of a language. Words in 
which sounds of the same description, e. g. vowels, or liquids, 
or mute consonants, are accumulated, do not sound well, — 
they are not euphonic. In general, it may be said that all 
words, when first formed, are euphonic; but the modern 
German language is less euphonic than the ancient, because 
euphony has been in a great measure sacrificed to eurythmy 
(§ 17), or the just proportion of accented and unaccented syl- 
lables. We have seen, that in order to produce eurythmy, 
two or more syllables and even words are contracted into one. 
By such contractions, sounds of the same kind are frequently 
brought together, and euphony is impaired or destroyed : thus 
2?ibelare has been converted into ^tebkr, fiddler ; 9lnbawailrtf>i 
into 2lntW0rt, answer; and we say liefcte (lte6ete), fpricbt (fjmefret). 
Moreover, euphony often suffers by terminations of derivation 
and inflection, as well as by the composition of words ; the 
final sound of a stem, or of one component, not forming a 
euphonic combination with the initial sound of a termination, 
or of another component ; e. g. adbtfcar, batlf 6ar, Xvagfreit, 
.jQecl)t3fopf, @ie66ein. This inconvenience, however, is fre- 
quently corrected, partly by throwing out sounds, partly by 


30 ETYMOLOGY. 

introducing new sounds. Thus when two vowels stand to- 
gether, as in tljUCU, ntljCt, jiel)Ct, fvcuet, the vowel of the termi- 
nation is omitted ; as in tl)im, Vltljt, {id)t, fveut When two 
mute consonants meet, a liquid or the semi-consonant $ is 
commonly inserted between them; as in fitibzihbtm, 2)tvf s 

en=6aum, .gocb^eiu^^taq, instead of .geib&eere, tBixfbaum, .godf)* 

3Citta#: and if two liquid sounds, or a liquid and a semi- 
consonant, stand together, the mute t is inserted frequently ; as 
in eiflen-t4icfc tiamen=t4tcj), wefen^lidb, wbdbert;t4tdb, mciti-ets 
JK^en, betn-et4;al6en. The signs el, en, % t, et, inserted in this 
way, are termed Euphonic Sigfis. The contractions of the 
terminations of inflection et and e$, which frequently take 
place for the sake of eurythmy, as in !acj)t, bettft, #tfct, #elte6t, 
2?or^uq», $lnfaw}3, is in general not admissible when the final 
sound of the stem is a lingual sound ; as in letb-et, tett=et, ftttb= 

et, $e6ab;et, $at>;e£, 5* u £'^, ©va&e3. 

Observation. — The well-educated part of the German nation, although 
they do not speak the popular dialect, but the High-German language 
(§ 18), still retain the general character of the pronunciation peculiar to 
the province which they inhabit. And as in the absence of a common capi- 
tal town, or of authority such as is derived from an academy, no one 
province is entitled to legislate for the others, the pronunciation of some 
German letters and words still remains open for discussion. Of this de- 
scription are the initial f, which in the South of Germany is pronounced 
as in English, whilst in the North its sound approaches to that of the 
English z; and the final y, which by some is pronounced not unlike #, by 
others like f. 

Foreigners ought carefully to avoid, however, such pronunciations as 
are generally admitted to be improper. Such are, the pronunciation of 
the initial g like j or the English y (Prussia), or like d) (Westphalia); 
that of fell like two separate sounds, j'cfr (Westphalia); that of the initial 
b and 5, like p and t; of U, like i ; eu, like ei ; b', like e ; and of fp and ft, 
like fcbp and fdfrt ; all of which are very commonly met with in the South 
of Germany. 


ETYMOLOGY. 31 


Chapter II. — Of Roots and Primary Derivatives. 

§ 31. 

Moots. 
In German, as in other Teutonic languages (§ 18), those verbs 
which now have, or formerly had, the ancient form of conju- 
gation, i. e. that form of conjugation in which the radical 
vowel is changed, — as 6mber?, to bind, Imp. fccuib, Part. $e= 
fcunben; trinfen, to drink, Imp. tranf, Part, ^etnmfen ; fcredben, 

to break, Imp. fcrftd), Part. ^eBfOCfjen, — are Radical verbs ; and 
they are to be regarded as the roots from which all other no- 
tional words are derived (§ 2). Those radical verbs, which 
in a later period have assumed the modern form, i. e. that 
form of conjugation in which the vowel is not changed, — as 
becfen, to cover, Imp. becfte, Part, ^ebecft; lauten, to sound, 
Imp. lautCte, Part, qctautct, — are known to be roots by the 
primary derivatives formed from them ; as, 2)ftifo roof; £teb, 
song. 

The signification of radical verbs is generally less definite 
than that of derivative verbs. It appears that they were all 
primitively intransitive, and the most part of them still are in- 
transitive. But many of them, as faljven, treiSen, fdbiegen, 
fcfmteljen, 6te#en, fctedben, in the same way as the English to 
move, to drive, to shoot, to melt, to bend, to break, are now used 
both intransitively and transitively. In some of them, as riedbett, 
fcfrtttecfen, in the same way as in to smell, to taste, even active 
and passive signification is not distinguished. 

Observation.— By the term Root we understand, not the inflected radical 
verb, as, frinfretl, fcreclKn, but the word without any termination, as frinb, 

§32. 

Primary Derivatives (@trimme) are formed from radical 

verbs, by a change of the radical vowel ($l6laut), similar to 

that by which the imperfect tense and the past participle of 

the same verbs are made. Thus $anb, band ; $imb, bond ; 


32 ETYMOLOGY. 

©pVCtCJK, speech ; ©pvudb, sentence ; are derived from the 
verbs 6inben (6anb, .qefcunbcn), fprecfjen (fpracf), .qefprocben). The 
vowels of primary derivatives are, for the most part, the same 
with those of the imperfect tense or past participle of the radi- 
cal verbs. This law, however, is not universal, vowels being 
the most mutable of all sounds (§ 23). In many primary de- 
rivatives, as ©dbetn, shine; $rei£, praise; #letcb, like; fcletdj, 
pale ; from fcfjeinen, pretfen, gkidben, fcletdben, — and especially 
in most of those formed from verbs in which the radical vowel 
a is not changed in the participle, as $atl, fall ; Jgalt, hold ; 
ganq, fang ; ©d;la$, blow ; from fallen, fatten, fatten, fcfcla- 
gen, — the vowel does not differ from that of the radical verb. 
All primary derivatives are either substantives or adjectives : 
and of primary substantives there are two forms, — the Ancient 
form (SlfclaittSform), and the Middle form (2Dtittelfbntl). 

All substantives and adjectives being derived from verbs, 
we find in all substantives and adjectives the notion of a verb 
modified in one way or another by derivation (§ 2). Many 
of them have retained so entirely the notion of the verbs from 
which they are made, as still to admit of an objective relation, 
and to govern cases and prepositions. We say, e. g. 3wc[)t 
t>or fcm Xobe, fear of death ; Surft na# 2£af)vt)ett, thirst for 

truth; ©ebanfe an ben Xob, thought of death; etngebenf bet 

banning, remembering the warning; tOUfllidb £U einem ©tanbe, 
fit for a profession ; because we say, VOX (?ttt>a$ furcfrten, nac^J 

(?tn>a3 burften, an (?troa3 benfen, einer ©adbe#ebenfen, £tt 
(ftiVa^ tauten. (See § 174?.) Substantives and adjectives of 
this description are termed Verbal Substantives and Verbal 
Adjectives. 

§ S3. 
Primary Substantives. 
The Primary Substantives of the ancient form are produced 
by merely changing the radical vowel of the verb, and they 
commonly have no termination; e.g. fflug, flight; ©dbku}, 
blow; %u$, march; ©jmtdfr, sentence; (gcbnttt, cut; Sritnf, 
drinking ; Xvanf, drink. Some of them, however, have as- 
sumed one of the terminations er, el, en ; as, $?eflef, knife ; 
better, weather; Summer, sorrow; ©df)CnM, leg; ©ipfet, top; 


ETYMOLOGY. 33 

^iffettj bit ; ©artett, garden *. Many substantives of this form 
have also assumed the augment $e (§ 29) ; e. g. ©efan#, song; 
@c6ot, command ; @efeg, law ; ©efdflttatf, taste ; ©crucb, smell: 
or have retained the augment of the radical verb ; e. g. (SkitHttttj 

gain ; ©emtf?, enjoyment ; from qenmnien, .qemeften. 

The signification of substantives belonging to this form is, 
in general, more indefinite than that of secondary deriva- 
tives. They imply, first, the concrete notion of an active sub- 
ject; e. g. $Scmh, tie ; (gcfmtttcf, ornament ; ^tug, river; Qad), 
roof; ©cbloj?, lock ; .gut, hat ; viz. that which binds, adorns, 
flows, covers, &c. : — or, secondly, the concrete notion of that 
which is done or made ; e. g. SBmtbj bundle ; Xvanf, drink ; 
@pmcfrj sentence ; (Bra6, grave ; Sffierf, work ; viz. that which 
is bound, drunk, spoken, &c. : — or, thirdly, the abstract notion 
of an action; e.g. (E>c[)tu|?, close; Xuinf, drinking; £auf, course; 
gall, fall ; 9utt, ride ; %ln^ flight. Some of them are em- 
ployed either in both of the concrete significations, or in the 
abstract and in one of the concrete significations, or in all 
the three ; e. g. $CMfi, fangs, catch, and catching ; 2?Vttcfr, 
breaking and crack ; ©dbttj?, shoot (of a tree), charge of gun- 
powder, and shooting ; 2?ranb, brand, and burning. 

§ 34. 
In primary substantives of the middle form the radical vowel 
of the verb is also changed, but they have at the same time one 
of the terminations t, b (tt, be), jt or e. The terminations t, b, 
fr, stand for the most part after a final vowel or liquid conso- 
nant, and C after a final mute consonant ; e. g. in @aat, seed ; 
%l)at, deed ; ©tut, glow ; $at!te, building ; gafcrt, ride ; 2?urbe, 
burden ; ^tmbe, knowledge ; %kxbt, ornament ; ©unfr, favour; 
2fttte, request; ©pradbe, language ; £cwte, lute; Wad)t, watch; 
(gdbeibe, sheath. When t stands after # or 6, following a short 
vowel, these mediae are changed into the corresponding aspi- 
rate sounds ; e. g. in ©dbladfo %ind)t, ©idbt, 2?«cf)t, and @tft, 
©dtfift, ©mft {§ 27). In some substantives of this form, the 


* These terminations, er, et, en, differ from affixes of secondary derivatives (§ 36) 
in having no influence on the signification of the v. ords to which they are added, 
and which are therefore, although apparently exceptions, classed with primary de- 
rivatives. — See Organ. § 36. ©ninim. § 35. 


34 ETYMOLOGY. 

termination e, which belonged to them at an earlier period of 
the language, has been dropped; e. g. in ©c|)uf, shearing; 
©cfear, ploughshare; Wcityl, choice; ©dbattt, shame; ,0Ut, guard. 
Of the substantives of the middle form, only the following have 
the augment $t (§ 29): viz. ©eBarbe, gesture; ©ebtt^r, duty; 
@c6mt, birth ; ©ebttlb, patience ; ©efa^r, danger ; ©efdbtdbte, 
history ; ®efd[)ttmlf?, tumour ; ©ejlatt, shape ; ©ett>a(t, force ; 
©ettmljr, security. 

Primary substantives of the middle form, in the same way 
as those of the ancient (§33), imply 1st, the concrete notions 
of an active subject, as @cf)lan#e, snake; ©decile, bell; 
WlixWi mill : or J 2dly, of that which is done or made ; as, 
2?UCbt, bay; ($k6e, gift; gcfmft, writ; @m6e, pit: or, 3dly, 
the abstract notion of an action ; as, Ztyat, deed ; §luc()t, flight; 
0feue, repentance ; $Bnm% burning ; j?unfr, art. 

Observation. — The substantives $kxat } ornament; ^eimat, home; ^etrat, 
marriage; $frmut, poverty ; and Rk'mob, a precious thing, jewel, — in which 
at, Ut, Ob, stand instead of t, are also to be regarded as belonging to the 
middle form. 

Primary Adjectives. 

§35. 
Primary Adjectives are generally formed from roots in the 
same way as the primary substantives of the ancient form (§ 33); 
e.g. fcWanf, slender; flucf, fledged ; fc^bn, beautiful; bid, thick; 
rcacf), awake : laut, loud ; gtetcfe, like ; from fcWm#en, (Tie^en, 
fcfjeinen, beu)en, wacken, lauten, #letdben. Some of them have 
also, like primary substantives, assumed the terminations er, 
el, Ctl (§ 33); e.g. Bitter, bitter; ettel, vain; efcen, even: whilst 
others have taken the termination e or t; e. g. ffren#e, severe; 
fcf)ltdbt, plain; recfet, right; fcmft, soft. — Primary adjectives 
alone are employed as adjective-substantives (§ 7) ; e. g. SBotfje, 
messenger; ^na6e, boy; (?r6e, heir; ©etyulfe, assistant; 9?ecf)t, 
law ; UeBel, evil ; 2£eij?, 9?0t^ 5 the white or red colour. Only 
iO?enfdb (2Dtarm4fdb), man, and giirfr (^orberfle, first), prince, 
are employed in the same way, though they must be con- 
sidered as secondary adjectives. 


ETYMOLOGY. 35 


Chapter III. — Of Secondary Derivatives. 

§36. 

Secondary Derivatives are generally formed from primary 
derivatives by means of affixes, i. e. terminations of derivation; 
e.g. ©dWof^er, locksmith; madbki#, mighty ; $$iit\bm$, alliance; 
from ©dfjloj?, Wlad)t, ,Q9unb, Those which are immediately 
formed from radical verbs, e. g. ©prefer, speaker ; RttmsW 9 
connoisseur ; ©$'M1$, session ; benf -hM, conceivable ; are less 
frequent in German than in English, and seem to be of recent 
introduction. Affixes are either primitively signs of deriva- 
tion, e. g. e, en, er, ig 9 idbt, tfcb, in, nt£, lid), lin#, kin, cfcen, fol, 
fel, ^Ctt ; or they are originally notional words, which, like the 
English full and like, in lawful, warlike, have assumed the 
signification of affixes ; e. g. fdbaft, t£>um, lei, £aft, Bar, fam. 
In secondary derivatives, formed by the affixes e> tX, i$, ifdb, 
in, nig, lid), Un#, kin (el)? Cfrw, fel, the vowel of the primary 
derivative, if a, 0, or u, is commonly modified (§ 24) ; e. g. in 
(Bute, goodness; SBiirger, citizen; madjtt£, mighty; ^anfifdb, 
quarrelsome ; from Qui, %$VX$, 3)?a#t, 3&nf. Upon the whole, 
it is not conformable to the German idiom, to employ a se- 
condary derivative in order to form a new derivative by 
means of another affix. Some words, however, are formed 
in this way; e.g. (&ifd)ifclid)'Mt, ability; 2£iirb%feit, dig- 
nity; $eftan£>;i$=feit, constancy; ©emacfclicHett, conveniency: 
their notions differ only by nice shades of signification from 
those of the primary derivatives, (Befcfridf, 2Burbe, 29ej?anfc, (Be* 
ttiacf). They are spurious forms of derivatives (} 17), and also 
of recent introduction. 

As in secondary derivatives the notions of the primary de- 
rivatives are modified by the relations expressed by the affixes, 
they become more definite, and therefore less comprehensive, 
than the notions of roots and of primary derivatives. 

Observation.— In general it may be said, that in secondary derivatives 
the vowel is only modified, whilst in primary derivatives it is changed (§ S3). 
In some primary derivatives, however, which either still have, or formerly 

d2 


36 ETYMOLOGY. 

had, the termination e, the vowel is modified : such are the substantives 
SBiirbe, Cage, ®unbe, State, 3*?u^e, STOU&le, I&Ur, 2BmUi&r, and the adjec- 
tives fliicf, fii&n,fU&(» fpa't. 

1. Derivative Verbs. 

§37. 
Derivative Verbs are formed from primary, and in some in- 
stances also from secondary derivatives ; e. g. tfatlfett, to give 
drink ; fallen, to fell; braw^H, to press ; fcf)lacf)ten, to slaughter ; 
flatten, to strengthen; fcfrttmcfren, to weaken; ttmvbi$en,to deign; 
l;eilt^en, to consecrate ; derived from the substantives Xranf, 

§all, Srang, ©cfrtadbt, and from the adjectives jtarf, fcfwadb, 

UHivbt#, {Ktlt$, which assume the conjugation and signification 
of verbs. When primary derivatives are thus made into verbs, 
their vowel is commonly modified, except in a few intransitive 
verbs of this description; e.g. pvan$en, to sparkle; pmnfett, 
to boast; bltften } to spread fragrance; bttrftCll, to thirst; $et£en 9 

to covet; erla^mten, erfatten, erjtofen, to become lame, cold, 

strong ; and some others. The most part of derivative verbs 
are transitive, and of the description of factitive verbs (§ 5). 
Some of them, however, like the adjectives used substantively, 
express in one word, and by way of ellipsis, a whole objective 
combination (§17); e. g. fcj)iffeit, to sail; pjTu$en, to plough; 
peitfdben, to whip ; Mtern, to press grapes ; (jammern, to ham- 
mer; ttnufelrr, to play with dice; fxfcfjett, to fish; #tafett, to 
graze; Buttevn? to make butter. In this way, the manner or 
mode of an action is pointed out, e.g. in f lutein, ttU$eltt, to play 
a prudent, a witty part; fvbtttmeln, to affect devotion; jttibeln* 
to deal jewishly ; nafeln? to speak through the nose. 

2. Substantives. 

a. Concrete Substantives. 

§38. 
Names of persons are formed from names of things by the 
affix er (Engl, er); e.g. ^ttVCjer, burgher; Xat^CV, dancer; 
Sdbafer, shepherd ; 0?ittev, knight ; ©an#ev, singer ; ©c&mtter, 
reaper; 2£oWtj}ater 5 benefactor; from SBllTQ, Xatlfa ©cfmf, 
0?ttt^ ©an#, ©cfcnitt, 2£o I; Itf) at. From names of countries and 


ETYMOLOGY. &7 

places, as ©d)tt>ei£, 3vlanb, OtOttl, £oilbOtt, substantives are 
formed in the same way ; e. g. ©dbwe^eij Swiss ; ^xl'tivfcw. 
Irishman ; 9?omer, Roman ; ConboWV. These are also em- 
ployed as adjectives; but in that case they are not inflected; 

e.g. £onboner J?aujTeute mit .gmttBm^er ©dbtffen. The male 

sex is distinguished by er in j?ater, a male cat ; £att6er, a cock- 
pigeon; and some other names of animals. In jftmfHev, artist; 
©cbltlbwer, debtor; ftigttCt* liar; and some others, { and n 
stand before the affix, merely for the sake of euphony. 

Observation 1. — Substantives of this form, made from verbs, are not so 
common in German as in English. There are, however, some; such as 
©Climber, tailor; better, rider; L l efer, reader. (§ 36.) 

Observation 2. — Names of countries, like @d(weben, ©tfCfyfetl, ©#ttt flfcett, 
$effen, are originally adjective-substantives, which imply at the same time 
the inhabitants of the countries, and therefore do not admit of the affix er. 

Observation 3. — From the affix CV we must distinguish that termination tx 
which primary substantives frequently assume, and by which the significa- 
tion is not affected. (§ 33.) 

§39. 
Names of females are made from names of persons, and 
also from some names of animals, by the affix in (Engl, ess) ; 
e. g. .£)irtm, shepherdess ; .gelbin, heroine ; j?bdbm, §veunbin, 
$embm, .gmnbm, 2£blfm, a female cook, friend, antagonist, 
dog, wolf. In German, the sex can also generally be distin- 
guished in this way in names of persons belonging to an office, 
profession, trade, rank, or nation ; e. g. in §ut fftll, SSilXQWhl, 

£e^rcrin, Stfafcfcerm, Cefcrin, ©c&nxi^rtn, (gngianbenn. Adjec- 
tives used substantively, however, do not admit of this affix : 
we say, therefore, bte 2?emmnbte, bk 2)eutfcfre CDetuMfcfce, see 
§ 50), the female relation, German woman. 2ltttttttanmn, 
DJMlertn, ^farretin, &c. in the same way, signify the wife of 
a bailiff, a miller, a parson. 

Observation. — The final n of the termination in is doubled in the plural 
number; e. g. in £)trtinnen. 

§40. 
Diminutives are formed from concrete substantives bv 
the affixes c|Kn (Engl, kin, in catkin, mannikiri) and kin 
(Engl, ling, in gosling). The affix cfcen is preferred after a 


38 ETYMOLOGY. 

liquid final consonant, or a final vowel ; and lem, on the other 
hand, after a mute final consonant, and especially after a 
palatal one; e. g. in ©tiiftfc&en, (gbl^ridben, $ardben, Saumcben, 
(?td)en, little stool, son, hair, tree, egg ; and jlnafclein, 93?acjblem, 
^tidbletn, ^OCfletn, little boy, girl, book, buck. In the Upper- 
German dialect Ictn has passed into el, from which D3?abel, girl ; 
Vermel, sleeve; and some other words, have been adopted. The 
sign el also denotes a diminutive signification in the verbs 

frbjMn (frbfbekn), jmjteln, IdcMn, to shiver, to cough a little, 

to smile ; and it has a bad sense in IteBeltt, to make love in a 
foolish way ; frbtttmeln, to affect devotion ; fitnfMn, to do arti- 
ficially, to affect. 

§41. 

Substantives formed by the affix Uttg (Engl, ling), are, for 
the most part, names of persons; e.g. $iinblin#, foundling; 
g-lucfctlm^, refugee ; gucfrtUng, prisoner in a house of correc- 
tion; .gaupttitlg, chieftain; ©tmftlut#, favourite; ©au#lm#, 
suckling. Some of them are diminutives ; e. g. 3iui$lm#, a 
youth; £iefclm#, darling; ©db'bglinq, little shoot. 2£i$lm#, 
witling; i0?iet£>lmc}, a mercenary; .gbfltn^, courtier; have a 
bad sense. 

b. Abstract Substantives. 
§ 42. 

Infinitives may in general be regarded as verbal substan- 
tives. The German language, however, frequently employs 
them, with this peculiarity, that they cannot, like verbal sub- 
stantives (§ 32), govern cases and prepositions. These sub- 
stantive infinitives, although declined like other substantives, 
do not generally admit of the plural number, and they com- 
monly require the definite article ; e. g. bd$ 0?etfen ift je$t 
$ef at}vlid), travelling is now dangerous : id) hill be£ ©pvecf)en$ 

ntitbe, I am tired of talking ; er ift in bem tyi&nm gefdbicf t, 

he is skilful in drawing. In all these respects they differ 
from the participial nouns of the English language, to which 
they correspond in point of signification. The substantive 
infinitives express the abstract notion of the verb in the 
most indefinite way, and in this respect differ from primary 


ETYMOLOGY. 39 

and other abstract substantives, which commonly imply the 
abstract notion of verbs, determined either by its relation to a 
subject; e. g. in bit £<Utf bit ©orme, the course of the sun ; bet 4 
$lu# etne$ 2?0#el3, the flight of a bird ; or by its relation to an 
object, e. g. in eme 9?eife nadb Berlin, a journey to Berlin ; bte 
@dWad[)t 6ep Waterloo, the battle of Waterloo; bte Stjfe&Wlfl 
ber ^illbeVj the education of the children. Substantive infini- 
tives also differ from participial infinitives (see § 74, 75), which 
admit of an objective relation ; e. g. in nad) (£T\£latlb vetfett 

ift K$t gefa&rlidb ; tdb Bin ntitbe von ber $olittf ^u (preen (of 
speaking of politics); e£ if? an#ew&m Canbfcljaften ^u ^etc^nen, 

it is pleasant to draw landscapes. 

Many substantive infinitives, however, e. g. 2?evlat1#enj desire; 
££ejtte6en, endeavour; £?et$tt%en, pleasure; £eiben, sorrow; 
2?er$el;>en, fault ; 2?erbrect;en, crime ; 2?ermbgen, fortune ; £e6en, 

life ; have assumed a definite signification, analogous to that 
of primary substantives : and some of them have adopted even 
a concrete signification; e.g. ©C^tei6en, a letter; $lttbenfen, 
souvenir; -fijefen, creature. 

§43. 
Substantives are formed by the affix tui# (Engl, ing), which 
is generally joined only to transitive derivative verbs, e.g. fallen? 
to fell ; f listen, to lead ; fenfen, to make sink (§ 37); and to tran- 
sitive compounds of radical verbs with prefixes, e. g. e?tra$ett, 
to bear ; erfmben, to invent ; v erfcmben, to connect ; imtevne&ttien, 

to undertake ; ii6etfc|)reiten, to transgress ; UHtef fucfjen, to exa- 
mine. Some substantives, however, are made in this manner 
from simple radical verbs, e. g. 9?et#ung, inclination ; ©t$un#, 
session ; ©palUm#, division ; gtejjUttg, the act of drawing : but 
they are of later introduction. 

Substantives of this form are in general verbal substantives 
(§ 32), which still express the transitive relation of the verbs 
from which they are produced, e. g. bte $allun# etW$ 2}attme3, 
the felling of a tree ; bte ©r6atUW# bet ©tabt, the building of 
the city ; bk OxiktytXtlQ bev Winter, education of children ; bie 
.ginricljtun^ eiW$ 3J?iffet&ater$, tne execution of a malefactor. 
Some of them, however, e. g. (£rfmbmi#, contrivance ; (gxfaty- 
Vltn>], experience; $eo6ad;tUN#, observation; 2tovfMlUH#, idea; 


40 ETYMOLOGY. 

2?er6tnbim#, connection ; (frnfermmc;, distance ; Q?er6leiibun^, 
illusion; imply also an effect (that which has been contrived, 
experienced, observed, conceived, &c). ;H?albui1g 9 woodland; 
©taUutlCJ, stabling; JildblUlg, clothing; .gjauS&altung, house- 
hold ; and some others, have a collective signification (§ 6). 

Observation. — The different significations of substantives, formed from 
the same verb, appear in the following examples: niUbe t>C11 bettt @et)en, 
fatigued with walking; be V (Bang rtatfj bet* ©tflbt, the walk to town; bet 
Umgattg mtt ^retn ben, the intercourse with foreigners; bie Uttlyefjiing 
einer #rage, the avoiding of a question; Xalent 311m ©rfinben, talent for 
contriving; einen guten #unb tfum, to find a good thing; bie (5 r fin bung 
be» ©c^tefpulfev^, the invention of gunpowder ; ba$ Unterfct;eiben ijr 
fdwer, distinguishing is difficult; ber Un terfcfrieb if! gVOfj, the difference 
is great; bie Unterfcn ei bung be$ ©inert oon bem $nbevn, the act of dis- 
tinguishing one from the other, 

§ u. 

Collective substantives are formed by the augment $e (§ 29) 
from primary substantives; e.g. ©eBtr^e, ridge of hills; @ej?tW, 
constellation; ©efmbe, the domestics; ©eblifdb, bushes; ©e- 
x'tilty, furniture; ©etbfe, noise; (Sebtan^C, crowd; ©efpracfc 
conversation ; from 2?et<5, Stern, &c. All substantives of this 
form, in old German, had the termination e: this, although 
now dropped in many instances, has induced a modification 
of the vowel (§ 24) which always remains, and by which 
substantives of this form are distinguished from augmented 
primary substantives, in which the signification is not affected 
by the augment (§ 33). 

In the same way, but without any modification of the vowels, 
frequentative substantives are formed from verbs ; e.g. bfl$ ©C= 
rebe, t>a$ ©eftnqe, ba$ ©elattfe, continued or repeated talking, 
singing, running ; ba$ ©enwnfel tuib ba$ ©efciricfe (jat wa$ ^U 
bebcutCU (Schiller), this whispering and this sending messages 
signifies something. This form, however, is of later intro- 
duction. 

§45, 

By the affix nig (Engl, ness) substantives are formed from 
primary substantives, especially from those provided with pre- 
fixes ; e. g. Simbnij?, alliance ; ^umntevnifj, sorrow ; (Frlaitfc; 


ETYMOLOGY. 41 

m§, permission; 2?ef|)altvuj?, relation; ^etrdll^tlif, distress; 
^ebiirfnig, necessaries ; fBtfUQXtiS, right; Qftvmacjltmfj, legacy; 
(Bejranbmf?, confession. Some of these are made from verbs ; 
e. g. ^efor^mj? , apprehension ; (?f fbrbewij? , requisite ; fimbtt'- 
lltj?, impediment. Substantives of this form commonly have a 
more limited and more particular signification than the pri- 
mary substantives from which they are made. 

To adjectives, this affix is in German joined only in ^Pilfc; 
m§, wilderness; ©e£fetmni§, secret; §uifrevntg, darkness; ©Idcfc 
ntj?, likeness. 

A few substantives are formed by the affixes fal and fel ; 
e. g. (gdbtcf \ai, fate ; ©ratlgfal, calamity ; Dfaitljfel, riddle ; 
UcBctbkibfdj remainder. In their signification, they scarcely 
differ from those formed by the affix nij?. 

Observation. — From XfU 6 fa I, calamity; ©C^Cllfal, a horrifying thing; the 
obsolete 9J?Uf)faI, hardship ; and some others of the same kind, the adjec- 
tives tvubfelta, calamitous; fd&eu$Ucf) (fc&etlfeftfl), horrible; Ulii^felig, pain- 
ful, &c. are formed. 

§46. 

Of substantives formed by the foreign affix et (Engl, y), 
there is a great variety in point of formation as well as of sig- 
nification. They are formed from primary and secondary 
substantives, and from radical and derivative verbs. The ter- 
mination iX is commonly inserted before the affix ei, when 
there is not already another unaccented termination ; e. g. in 
&\cV0'tX>t\, slavery. Substantives of this form denote the abs- 
tract notion of an action ; e. g. .!$eucbctci, hypocrisy ; ©c(ttttet= 
C^elet, flattery : or an effect ; e. g. ©cfjilbetei, picture ; ^OXlhi- 
fei, enchantment : or the notion of the condition or profession 
of persons; e. g. ©flatKVei, slavery; IS'&Qmi, hunting; @art= 
HCreij gardening. They also have a collective or frequentative 
signification, like those formed by the augment #e (§ 44) ; e.g. 
in Ofdtem, cavalry ; ©tttteret, stud ; ZdxtiiKi, lands ; ©dbwags 
etei, chattering ; 9?au6crei, robbery. They have a bad sense 
in ©pielevei, £efetei, Cattferei, playing, reading, running in a bad 
way ; j^KVCVCij affectation. 

§47. 
Substantives are formed from primary adjectives by the 
affix e, and from primary as well as secondary adjectives by 


42 ETYMOLOGY. 

gett (Engl, hood) ; e. g. ©lite, goodness ; @$)bnl)ett, beauty. In 
those made from secondary adjectives, and from such primary 
adjectives as have the termination el or et, the affix fyt\X is 
commonly changed into feit; e.g. in (£ttu#fett, eternity; 5le|)tt= 
licfrfett, likeness ; £mi#fantfett, slowness ; Sanf 6atf eit, thankful- 
ness ; (gttelf eit, vanity ; 25tttevf ett, bitterness. The termination 
i# is inserted for the sake of euphony in ©pvbbt#fett, prudery ; 
grbmmt^fett, piety; ©teift#fett, stiffness; and some others. 
Both forms express the abstract notion of the adjectives from 
which they are made ; e. g. ©tdtf e, strength ; @dbtt>ddbe, weak- 
ness ; 2D?ilbe, mildness ; C?eitl(jett, purity ; ^ttfniljeit, boldness. 
Some of them, however, are also employed in a concrete sense ; 
e. g. $ofyt, height ; §Iacbe, plain ; -JDitfre, desert ; ©itgt^fetten, 
sweet things ; gUtgigf ett, liquid ; j?leimtf f ett, trifle — 2)?cnfdbfc»ett, 
mankind; dljrijienl?ett, Christendom; @eifHtdf)fett, clergy; have 
a collective signification (§ 6). 

§48. 

Abstract substantives are formed from names of persons by the 
affixes fdjjaft (Engl, ship) and tfnmt (Engl, dom) ; e. g. §reimb= 
fc&Ctft, friendship ; gembfdjaft, enmity ; j?necf)tfc|)aft, slavery ; 
^ervfc&aft, dominion ; gitvjretttfmm, principality ; (^rtftetttfjunt, 
Christianity. The most part of substantives formed by those 
affixes have a collective signification (§ 6) : viz. those formed 
by fdbffft imply a collection of persons, whilst those formed by 
t£mm s ig m fy a collection of things belonging to the persons ; 

e. g. IKittcrfc&aft, 3ubenfc{?aft, ^rtefterfcfcaft, SBixtQttffyaft, the 

whole body of the knights, Jews, priests, citizens ; and 0ftttef= 
t&ltm, chivalry; ^ubent^ttm, Judaism; <priejfert(Htm, priest- 
hood; «0eibent|)um, paganism; .ge^O^Um, dukedom. The 
substantives (ftgenfcfraft, quality; £anbfcf)aft, landscape; 2Btfs 
fcilfdbaft, science ; Saarfcfraft, ready money ; ©etdt^fdbaft, in- 
struments; SBvteffc&aftCn, letters; and gt^ent^um, property; ,@eu 
li#t|)um, sanctuary; 9tttett& am, antiquity; ^eidbt&Uttt, riches; 
2Bacb^tl;um, growth ; 3vrtt)Um, error ; are the only ones 
made with these affixes from nouns which are not names of 
persons. 


ETYMOLOGY. 43 

3. Adjectives, 
§ 49. 

Adjectives with the affix t# (Engl, y) are generally formed 
from abstract primary substantives; e. g. fldf?i$, diligent; 
n$tg, tranquil; madbtt#, mighty; fTucf)ti#, flighty; #thljti#, 
favourable ; V evbacj)tig, suspicious. Those made from concrete 
substantives are not numerous, and commonly admit of no 
modification of the vowel ; e. g. 6tumt#, flowery ; 0ufcfn#, 
bushy; fcmbtjg, sandy; fcfmppt#, scaly; WCtlbu}, woody. Second- 
ary adjectives, however, are also formed by the affix t# from 
compound substantives ; e. g. lcm#6emtfl, long-legged ; |)of)laU= 
%\Q, hollow-eyed ; faj}lfbpfr#, bald-headed ; ^UKifcfmetbtg, two- 
edged ; tveiecf t#, triangular : and from pronouns and adverbs 
of time and place ; e. g. tltettug, mine ; bdrti$, thine ; je$t#, 
present; ^CUtig, of to-day ; fnejt$, of this place; borttg, of that 
place. 

The affix ctt serves, as in English, to form adjectives from 
names of materials; e.g. #olbett, golden; fctbeit, silken. Be- 
fore this affix the letter t is frequently inserted for the sake of 
euphony ; e. g. in fckiern, leaden ; tyb^eril, wooden ; $lafew, 
made of glass. 

§ 50. 

Adjectives are formed by the affix ifd) (Engl, ish) from 
names of persons ; e. g. fnedbtifcf), slavish ; bkfc ifcf), thievish ; 
rVte#erifc(), warlike ; tyettc()teftfc(), hypocritical : and from names 
of countries and places ; e. g. fpamfdb, encjltfcfr, fcfrwebifcfr, fact)- 
(ifdf), fblmfc(>, franffurtifcf) : to the latter description, irbifcf), 
earthly; tyimmltfcj), heavenly; pllifcf), hellish; may also be 
referred. From abstract substantives only, mtbtfdb, envious ; 
$nf ifcfr, quarrelsome ; at#tt>b|Mtfc{>, suspicious ; fpbtttfcf), scorn- 
ful ; tttcf ifcj), malicious ; and some others, are formed : they 
imply a disposition to envy, quarrel, suspicion, &c. This affix 
is more especially joined to proper names and foreign words ; 
e.g. in bet lut|)etifc{)e or Mtrintfdbe@lau6e, Lutheran or Calvin- 
istic belief; bk gallifcfce (&d)'dbtlU\)U, Gall's craniology ; bte 
lanfajlerifdbe 29?etl)obe, the Lancasterian method ; and lo#tfdb, 
p^pfifdb, poctifdb, ti;eolo#ifc(), logical, physical, &c. 


44- ETYMOLOGY. 

Observation 1. — In the oldest German, all adjectives formed from names 
of persons had the affix ifrjj ; e. g. fiirftifcf » princely ; fdnigifdD, kingly. But 
more recently the affix ltd? (Engl, ly) has generally come in place of tf$ ; 
e.g. fur|rli#, foniglicl). From 2£eifr, £tnb, £err, and £ne#t, both forms 

of adjectives still exist : — weibifcf), effeminate; finbtfcf), childish; fcerrtfcfr, 
imperious; fnecfjttfcfr, servile; have a bad sense, and differ in this respect 
from W etfclicfr, feminine, female; f tnblt#, child-like ; feerrltcfj, noble. 

Observation 2. — Adjectives formed from compound names of countries 
and places by means of the affix tf$, would, if inflected, be offensive to 
eurythmy (§ 17). We commonly employ, therefore, in their place, and as 
adjectives, the substantives made by the affix er, which then are not in- 
flected (§ 38); e.g. ba$ fjetbelbevger #flfj, the Heidelberg tun ; bie lune; 
burger ^etbe, the Luneburg heath; ein frankfurter ^aufmann, a Frank- 
fort merchant; instead of fjeibefterytfcfje, &c. 

§ 51. 
Adjectives formed from abstract primary substantives by 
the affixes Bar and fam (Engl, some), imply either possibility, 
e.g. jid>t6av, visible; #art#6av, current, passable; fetyl6ar, 
fallible; fttrcfjtBav, formidable; IttirTctm, tractable; vatl)fam, 
advisable: — or a disposition; e. g. banfBar, thankful; frttcf)t= 
Bar, fruitful ; jrreitBar, able to bear arms ; nmdbfam, watchful ; 
furc()tfant, fearful ; friebfam, peaceful. Those formed by bat 
from verbs are of later introduction, and have the same signi- 
fication with the English adjectives terminating in ble ,• e. g. 
k£bat, legible; tthlf&ar, drinkable; egBar, eatable; benffcar, 
conceivable. 

4. Adverbs. 
§ 52. 
The words formed by the affixes lief) (Engl. ly\ t)aft, and 
tdf)t, express the relation of manner, and consequently belong 
to the adverbs of manner ; e. g. er l)at ttttr fcfmftltcfo or nttmbs 
lid) 6evidbtet, he informed me in writing or by word of mouth; 
it Qibt reicbltcfc, he gives liberally ; cr 6efi$t wfytlid), he pos- 
sesses lawfully ; er fte^t fxemtyaft au$, he looks sickly ; e$ fcfmtetf t 
fal^icfjt, it tastes saltish. These adverbs are also employed as 
adjectives, whenever the notion of the substantives to which 
they refer admits of the relation of manner, or if this relation 
is understood ; e. g. ein fdrnftlidjer or munblicJKr 2?eridbt, a 
written or an oral information ; eine reidblicfre ©a&e, a liberal 


ETYMOLOGY. 45 

present ; em redbttidbev 2>ejt$er, a lawful possessor ; em franf* 
l)afll$ 5lu$fe&et?, a sickly appearance ; em fainter ©efcfmiacf , 
a saltish taste ; fcmjfticjje ©lumen, artificial flowers (made by 
art). There are, however, some adverbs of time and mood 
(§ 10) formed by lid) which are never used as adjectives; e.g. 
nettlidb, lately ; erffltd), firstly ; folglicf), consequently ; fveilid), 
to be sure ; #ett>tglic() and jicftetltcf), certainly ; fcfwetlicf), hardly; 
Wafcrtidb, indeed. 

Adverbs are formed by the affixes lid) and J)aft from abstract 
primary substantives, and from primary adjectives ; e. g. #Ut(fs 
lid), luckily ; efrvltcf), honestly ; frteblic(), peacefully ; eibltcfj, by 
an oath; ttWtlidj, verbally; angllltdb, anxiously; 6emi#ltcl), 
deceitfully; a&fi'dfrtltdb, on purpose; ttm$ltd[), wisely; treultcfr, 
faithfully; fdlfcf)lict), falsely; and ffanbljdft, constantly; ftmfc)- 
^aft, sinfully ; fd&et^aft, jocosely ; ttmt)rtjaft, truly ; fYatlf^aft, 
sickly ; Bo^aft, maliciously. Adverbs, however, are also made 
by lid) from secondary forms and participles ; e.g. fvcutlb fdbaft= 
lid), amicably ; #efTifTentticf), on purpose ; #ele$entltc|), occasion- 
ally ; ttuffentltdb, knowingly : and some are made by fyaft from 

names of persons ; e. g. metjterljaft, fdbiilerljaft, rtefetityaft, ntafc 

cf)enljaft, like a master, a schoolboy, a giant, a maiden. 

From those derivatives formed by lid), the original signifi- 
cation of which is that of adverbs of manner, we must dis- 
tinguish those derivatives of later introduction made by the 
same affix, which originally have the signification of adjectives. 
They are — 

1. Those made from names of persons ; e. g. V dUtlid), pa- 
ternal ; rtttetltdb, knightly ; f oniftlid), kingly ; in which lid) has 
come in place of the affix ifcl), appropriate to this formation in 
an earlier period (§50, Obs. 1). 

2. Those diminutive adjectives which are made from other 
adjectives ; e. g. WetgUd), whitish ; rbtfclicfr, reddish ; altlicfr, 
oldish ; fujjlidb, sweetish. 

3. Those made from verbs in which the affix has the same 
signification with hat (§51); e.g. fkvfcltdf), mortal; $lau&lidb, 
credible ; hiWiftlid), moveable ; becjreiflidb, conceivable. 

Adjectives formed by iq from concrete substantives (§ 49), 
e. g. 6lumi#, flowery ; #at%, bilious ; and diminutive ad- 
jectives formed by lief), e. g. tt>eif?lic(j, — are changed into ad- 


46 ETYMOLOGY. 

verbs by assuming the termination t ; e.g. BUutttdbt, ^altic&t, 
fatydbt, mtldfudbt, like milk, grimlicjjt, greenishly. The affixes 
icbt and lid)t, therefore, are to be considered as composed of 
two affixes. 

Observation. — In old German, adverbs made from adjectives generally 
had the affix lidf), as they still have in English the affis ly. At present, 
almost all adjectives are employed as adverbs ; in which case they do not 
take any signs of inflection ; e. g. (etfe fprerfjen, to speak softly; lattgfattt 
gefKtt, to go slowly; fd&lee&t fcanbelrt, to act basely. 


Chapter IV. — Of Compounds. 

§ *& 

When two words in relation to one another, as boat and 
steam, or ever and how, are united into one word, which, like 
other derivatives, is adopted by the language, as steamboat, 
however, the word thus formed is called a Compound (Jufcmt- 
menfe$img). 

A compound, as shoe-maker, may be again the component 
part of another compound, as shoemaker-street ,• but every 
compound is considered as consisting only of two components, 
one of which is determined by the other : they are accordingly 
distinguished as the Determinative component {steam, ever, 
shoemaker), and the Determined component [boat, how, street). 
The unity of the word is expressed by unity of the accentu- 
ation (§ 15): the principal accent generally falls upon the 
determinative, whilst the subordinate accent is taken by the 
determined component. 

In compounds, either both components are notional words 
{% 1), e. g. in steam-boat ; or both of them are relational words, 
e. g. in how-ever, there-fore ; or one of them is a notional and 
the other a relational word, e.g. in for-bid,for-give. 

1. Compounds of Notional words. 
§ 54. 
In all compounds of notional words, the components are in 
some relation one to another; which is either attributive, e.g. in 


ETYMOLOGY. 47 

bitter-wort, white-thorn, land-lord (% 12) ; or objective, e.g. in 
earth-flax, eye-tooth, land-trade, nut-brown, earth-born (§ 13). 
The former, in which the attributive factor has come to be the 
determinative component, we term compounds by contraction 
(3ufammenfu£tni$en) ; and to the latter, in which the objective 
factor has been converted into the determinative component, 
we give the name of compounds of union (^erfcfjme^Mt^en). 

§ 55. 

In compounds by union, the determinative component is 
either a substantive or an adverb : both of them are in an ob- 
jective relation (§ 13) to the determined component, which is 
either a verb or adjective; e.g. in tt>al}rtK^niett, to perceive; 
(o^ftJtCdben, to acquit; lo3faufen, to ransom ; £immel6lail, sky- 
blue ; QXCifytUXl, grass-green ; feefrattf , sea-sick : — or a verbal 
substantive (§ 32) ; e. g. in Sftutburfr, blood-thirstiness ; 0?oj?* 
^anbler, horse-dealer; 9tfadbttt?adbe, night-watch; ©etltdn^V, 
rope-dancer ; $udfj$ja#en, fox-hunting ; (gkeveife, sea-voyage ; 
S3cutd)Xtf>ntV, ventriloquist; -Hteflerfdbeu, hydrophobia :— or a 
substantive referred to by means of a participle, which is not 
expressed but understood; e.g. in $#em$la$, 2BafTer$la$, a glass 
employed for wine, for water ; 9?UpaUttt, $lpfel6amtt, j?ufcfc 
baum, a tree bearing nuts, apples, cherries ; gfaU^UJWj par- 
tridge ; ^Baffer|)U^n, water-fowl (living in the field, in water) ; 
£Baumtt>oHe, cotton (wool groxvn on trees) ; $lpfeltt>em, cider ; 
2Be^emttal$, wheat-malt; (made from apples, from wheat.) 

The peculiar character of compounds by union is, that two 
notions coalesce into one notion, which is conceived by the 
mind as a simple notion. Woodcock and §elbl?u(jtt do not 
imply any cock and any hen living in the wood, but two par- 
ticular species of birds : and the German compounds 9lpfds 
tt>etn, cider; SSaumwdk, cotton ; .fjanbfcjnu), glove; ©trumpf* 
fcanb, garter ; gin#er|mt, thimble ; Xafdbemt(jr, watch ; imply 
exactly the same simple notion, which is expressed by the 
corresponding simple words in English. Compounds of this 
description are new words formed to express new notions : 
the formation of such compounds, therefore, ought to be con- 
sidered as a particular mode of derivation ; and as the deter- 
minative component expresses the essential part of the whole 


48 ETYMOLOGY. 

compound, and takes the principal accent, they may be com- 
pared to secondary derivatives ; the determinative component 
being analogous to the stem, and the determined component 
to the affix of the derivative. In fact, many compounds, e. g. 

3?et#mamt, ^ettdmann, gorjhttamt, $mMf tub, and in English 

sportsman, fislierman, locksmith, do not in any manner differ, 
in point of signification, from the secondary derivatives : miner, 
beggar, forester, foundlings 3a#ef, 5>ifdS>efj ©dbloflcf, and some 
words which primitively were determined components, — e. g. 
fcfjaft, tljltm, I) aft, and full, like (in lawful, warlike), — have 
now assumed the form and signification of affixes. 

Compounds being considered as new derivative words, 
other derivatives are frequently made from them, either by 
affixes, e. g. 6atmwott*en, of cotton; elfel6dn=en, of ivory 
(§ 49) ; ttMibmarotsifcfr, sportsmanlike (§ 50) ; formtag4tcf>, be- 
longing to Sunday (§ 52) ; .£)anbiKrf=er, handicraftsman ; 
SacjlcrjVJ'eV, day-labourer (§38) ; — or by means of a second 
composition; e. g. ©cfmupftabacf^bofe, snuff-box; ©trill* 
fo&to#Ut6e, coal mine; .ganbfcjwj^madber, glover. Words, 
however, formed by a repetition of the process of composi- 
tion, e.g. ©cbnupfsta6atf&bofetfcfa6ttf, snuff-box-manufacture; 
©teinsfoljUnsga&lidbt, coal-gas-light; do not conform to the 
laws of unity of accent and notion (§ 15), and are therefore to 
be regarded as spurious forms of words (§ 36). 

In compounds by union, the determinative component is 
not inflected; and if*it has the termination e, this is dropped. 
However, if the determinative component is a substantive, it 
frequently, for the sake of euphony (§ 30), assumes one of the 
terminations c, iX, el, CH, e$ (3), which then are termed signs of 
union (2?erfc|)met3U1193eribunC}en) ; e. g. in Xafyt-Mld), day-book; 
5lfc(Krmutttt)0Crj> Ash-Wednesday; $etb=el=6eere, bilberry; 
2?irfset1-6aitnt, birch-tree ; £te6;e&6rief, love-letter ; — instead of 
Xa#6ildb, .0db6eere, &c. Whether a sign of union is employed 
at all, and in that case which of them is preferred, depends 
not only on the final of the determinative and on the initial 
of the determined component, but also on the form of declen- 
sion, and in some respect even on the signification of the de- 


ETYMOLOGY. 49 

terminative component. The practice of the German lan- 
guage is not quite settled upon this point in every particular 
instance. In general, however, it may be comprehended under 
the following rules : — 

1.) When the final sound of the determinative component 
is a vowel, or a simple liquid consonant, or §, it admits of no 
sign of union; e.g. in ,0eu6obcn, hay-loft; 9Jiitl;lvab, mill-wheel; 
j^ronkildbter, lustre; 2l;url;uter 5 door-keeper; $logfeber, fin of 
a fish. This rule does not generally comprehend doubled or 
augmented final liquids (§ 29), which are in this respect assi- 
milated to mute consonants; except in ^famifllC&en, pancake; 
Wollfatf, woolsack; (gvbBeeve, strawberry; *8idl)l\\)n {tetrao 
tetrix, Lin.); ^Butlbpffajter, plaster for wounds; and some 
others. 

2.) When the determinative component terminates in the " 
semi-consonant 3, or in one of the mute consonants g, b, h (a 
media, § 26), it frequently assumes the sign e or e$ (£) if de- 
clined in the ancient, and always takes ett if declined in the 
modern form; e. g. j9?attfe falle, mouse-trap; .^afefrattm', 
cheesemonger; Xagihlld), day-book; ©ic#e£lieb, triumphal 
song ; 0fob e tttadber, wheelwright ; £ei6 e 3 jtvafe, corporal pu- 
nishment; and 9?ofenjlO(f, rose-tree; ^te^enltcb, lullaby 
song; 2au6en[)au^, pigeon-house. The sign el occurs only 
in <$ub cl 6eeVC bilberry ; ginb e Iftllb, foundling ; 9un$ el 6tttme ? 
marigold ; and some others. 

3.) When the final sound of the determinative component 
is a tenuis or aspirate mute consonant, it admits of no sign of 
union if declined in the ancient, but commonly assumes the 
sign en if declined in the modern form ; e. g. ©tocf fifcfcj stock- 
fish ; JvtlopfTocfj, button-hole ; $ettflV0&, bed-straw ; .gufitftgel, 
horseshoe-nail; Sadbfenjfar, sky-light: and Cippen&udbita&e, 
labial letter ; 0?att etl fanner, rat-catcher ; ©locfenblume, blue- 
bell; ^udbemtta^b, kitchen-maid; Waff e n fdbmicb, armourer. 
The determinative component, however, though declined in 
the modern form, frequently assumes no sign of union, if it 
has a long vowel; e.g. in ©aatfom, seed-corn; 95mt|>emie, 
brood-hen ; (gicfrfcaum, oak-tree ; 25udbltJCigcn, buck-wheat ; 
©pradntKtfter, teacher of languages; ©tVafeclb, penalty; Xilttf- 
jtein, baptistery. 


50 ETYMOLOGY. 

4.) Names of persons and animals commonly assume a sign 
of union; e.g. in 2?eit3tan£, St. Vitus's dance; £bm£$tt>a(Ter, 
aqua-regia; gWite'H$la$, Muscovy-glass; $Botf £ 6ol;ne, lupine; 

$ammd36raten, roasted mutton. 

5.) Determinative components, which in virtue of their final 
sound and of their declension ought to assume a sign of union, 
are frequently without it, if the determined component has for 
its initial a vowel, liquid, or semi-consonant ; e. g. in $Kabt\a%d, 
wheel-nail; SftaSfjOttt, rhinoceros ; OutBbl, rape-seed-oil; dxiifc 
famen, rape-seed ; 9?e6flocf, vine ; j?btti$mdS>, kingdom ; (&&&[-. 
leber, sheep-leather. 

6.) When the determinative component is already a com- 
pound substantive, it frequently assumes the sign $ ; and when 
it is a derivative formed by one of the demi-accented affixes 
at, at, tyett, Utt#, ling, fdfjaft, it always assumes the sign $; e.g. 
in .j5odb$eit$#a|?, one invited to a wedding; $atlfcwevr^ew}, 
tools ; .j$eirat$ antrag, proposal of marriage ; (?m6ilbwi# $ ft aft, 
faculty of imagination ; 5reitKtt$fVte#, war for liberty; gmui^ 
fcf)aftS>btenj?, office of friendship. 

In general the plural number is not expressed by inflection 
in the determinative component ; e. g. in $pfd6atWt, apple-tree ; 
Stotttttgavten, orchard ; kvfytykU cow-herd ; ga|m6uvfte, tooth- 
brush. In some compounds, however, it is distinguished ; e. g. 
in ^itdbet fa a(, library; WoUtthud), dictionary ; Emitter fafc, 
green cheese : whilst we say, on the contrary, 2?uc{)6tnber, 
bookbinder; 2I>0Vtfram, idle words. 

§57. 
In compounds by contraction (§ .54), the determinative com- 
ponent is either a substantive or an adjective in the attributive 
relation (§ 12) to the determined component, which is always 
a substantive ; e. g. in @{)f iffanfcuifc, enemy of Christians ; 0ia= 
Bcnfeber, crow-quill ; SBauewff ol$, boorish pride ; j?bttt#3fol)t?, 
king's son; JjoljerpriejfaV, high-priest; (Mjeitttervatt;), privy- 
counsellor. In compounds of this description, the determi- 
native component still has the signs of inflection expressive 
of the attributive relation ; e.g. bev .£)0bepriejtev, Gen. be6 
.0ofKnp;riefIer$ : if it is a substantive of the feminine gender 
it has the sign en, which is the obsolete sign of the genitive 


ETYMOLOGY. 5 1 

case; e.g. in gie^en^aar, goat's hair; £er$en$efan#, the lark's 
song. Many compounds, however, and all derivatives formed 
by the affixes l;ett, fcfjaft, VLXIQ, at, Ut, as well as foreign sub- 
stantives having the terminations tat and ton, assume the ter- 
mination $; e. g. ,j5od^eit$ta#, day of marriage ; @e6ttrt£tag, 

birthday; 2Babr&ett$lte6e, love of truth ; ©efatibfdbaft^fefretar, 
secretary to the embassy; 3^1*11$ 3 kfer, one wno reads the 
newspapers; 3)tojeftat 3 tecfct, right of royalty ; 9teliflUN1$fm= 
Ijeit, religious liberty. The determinative component, if it is 
a substantive, has the principal accent ; but if it is an adjec- 
tive, it commonly takes a subordinate accentuation. 

Compounds of this description express, indeed, a unity of 
notion, but they cannot, like compounds by union, be con- 
sidered as new words denoting new simple notions (§ 55) ; 
and the signification of K6Yli^[c^n scarcely differs from that 
of @0pn be$ $0##e& On that account no other derivatives 
or compounds are made from them : a great many compounds 
by contraction, however, have adopted the signification of 
compounds by union, so as now to express simple notions, 
like those of compounds by union; e. g. Cbwenjallfl, dande- 
lion ; SolfSmild), Euphorbia ; Canbe^etT, sovereign ; Strtf>& 
tyau§ 9 inn ; RoxiiQUify, realm : ^Ut^ermetfta 4 , burgomaster ; 
£?atetlatlb 5 native country. By this modification the determi- 
native component frequently loses the sign of inflection ; e.g. in 
2)?ont>fdbem, moonlight ; (?rb6e6en, earthquake ; SBlutfluf?, he- 
morrhagy; ^imgfwit, virgin; Sftttcrfal^ Epsom salt; 3uiK?= 
gefell, bachelor ; Mtwm$f$C&, crosier ; gutfiViik, jest : in which 
case the adjective determinative commonly takes the principal 
accent. In some of them, however, as 3tm##efeU, ftvciufc 
ttttin^e (Mentha crispa, Lin.), £an#£tt>Cile 9 ennui, the adjec- 
tive determinative still has the subordinate accent. 

2. Compounds of Relational words. 
§ 58. 
In compounds of relational words, two relations, one modi- 
fying another, coalesce into one relation ; e. g. £ewt6, hither 
down ; in which the local direction expressed by \)ZX (hither) is 
so modified by another relation of locality, ah (down), that the 
relation expressed by the compound is conceived in the mind 

e 2 


52 ETYMOLOGY". 

as one single relation. In these, as in other compounds, the 
determinative component has the principal accent ; but it com- 
monly stands after the determined component. Compounds of 
this description are :— 

1.) Compounds of demonstrative adverbs of locality, with 
other adverbs of locality ; e. g. l;evcm, l)txau$, Ijetattf, J)evtulter, 
fKVuBer, &c. hither in, hither out, hither up, hither down, 
hither over; jnnetw, IjnimuJ, fctnauf, fmuuiter, (nniiSev, &c. 
thither in, thither out, thither up, thither down, thither over ; 
fnenieben, here below; bvinmn, ixaufiw, bumten, there within, 
there without, there below. 

2.) Compounds of two adverbs of locality; e.g. tfOV&Vt, f0= 
XaitZ, before; tfor&ei, by; tfOruBev, by, over ; flVOGX, heretofore; 
fiWibtV, against; blixfyait^ throughout; ^tviicf, back ; VOXtV'tiVtZ, 
forwards ; viiefnxivt?, backwards ; and some others. 

From these compounds we must distinguish those in which 
a preposition and the case of a pronoun governed by the pre- 
position are contracted into one word ; e. g. ltad)betlt, after that; 
inbem, in that ; $ubtm 9 to that ; fettbem, since that ; and baxan, 
thereon ; bataitf, thereupon ; bavin, therein ; bat* OH, thereof; 
fyktin, herein ; tyievauf, hereupon ; l;ernacf), hereafter ; WCXauf, 
whereupon; WOvilT, wherein ; \v ofiir, wherefore; voxl)ZX 9 before 
that; vovi)ixt 9 before this; tiwfafyit, after that; tttit()h?, with this; 
6is?f)er, till now; &c. — in which the governed cases of the 
pronouns have assumed the form of adverbs. Of the same 
description are, bal)£X, thence ; batyitX, thither ; KJOfjeV, whence ; 
WofjHn, whither ; in which the adverbs fyev and {)\w have the 
signification of the prepositions from and to. The relation 
expressed by these compounds is not conceived in the mind 
as one single relation ; they may therefore be compared with 
compounds by contraction (§ 57). Some of them, however, — 
e.g. inbem, since; nadf)bem, after; ^itbem, moreover; fettbem, 
since; — have now come to imply single relations, and are em- 
ployed as conjunctions, 

3. Compounds of Notional with Relational words. 
§ 59. 
The notions of adjectives are in German, as in English, 


ETYMOLOGY. 53 

negatived by composition with the negative adverb un (Engl. 
tin); e. g. unfrtfllidb, unspeakable ; uwrljbrt, unheard ; tmfdbags 
Bar, invaluable; ungefudbt, unasked; ailtttcgltcjj, impossible; 
immcrftid;, imperceptible ; im^lattBlidb, incredible : the nega- 
tive abverb in this case takes the subordinate accent. 

The same adverb, however, in composition with substan- 
tives and also with many adjectives, commonly does not merely 
express a negation, but, like the English mis and dis, implies 
an opposition to the notion expressed by those words; in 
consequence of which it assumes the principal accent ; e. g. in 
11 ttglticf, misfortune, hardship ; Ullbailf, ingratitude; U 11 fall, 
mischance; Unveil, mischief; Unliiji, disgust; U nmeilfcf?, a 
cruel man; unqefitllb, sickly ; tni^qo^eil, ill-bred ; unel)vlicf?, 
dishonest; un^efcl)icft, awkward. 

Verbs are compounded with adverbs, by which either the 
notion of the verb itself is modified, or only a relation of the 
notion is expressed. The most part of prepositions, though 
themselves relational words, are in composition employed as 
adverbs of locality, and so modify the notions of verbs united 
with them, that the adverbial component expresses the prin- 
cipal notion of the compound; e. g. aBmrjmen, to decrease; 
^Mieljmen, to increase; a6jMa,eri, to descend; aufjlci^CH, to 
ascend; attffd)ltcgen, to unlock; £ufcf)liej?en, to shut up. In 
such compounds the adverb assumes the part of the deter- 
minative component in compounds by union (§ 55), and 
therefore receives the principal accent. The laws of German 
construction require the adverb, as the principal component, 
always to take the place of the predicative factor; whilst the 
verb, as the subordinate component, takes that of the copula 
(see § 205) : the adverb consequently being frequently placed 
after the verb, and separated from it, compounds of the kind 
now described are termed separable compound verbs. 

When a verb is compounded with an adverb, which does 
not thus essentially modify the notion of the verb, but only 
implies in a general way a relation of that notion to the 
subject or to an object, the adverbial component takes the 
subordinate accent, and is not separated from the verb. We 
give the name of Prefixes to the adverbial components of this 
description, and that of inseparable to the compound verbs 


54 ETYMOLOGY. 

formed with them ; e. g. Bemfjujen, to calm ; 6efjm$en, to be- 
dash ; tieV^efTen, to forget ; untevm^nKn, to undertake. The 
prefixes 6e, er, VCY, ent, $X, and mi$, are employed only as 
components of inseparable compound verbs : the prefixes frurcj), 
Whiter, anter, ti6er, UttT, ttuber, on the other hand, are also em- 
ployed as prepositions and as determinative components of 
separable compound verbs. The adverb t>o!l also, has, like 
the English full in to fulfil, assumed the signification and the 
nature of a prefix, in tfollenben, t)oll6vin#en, to achieve, to 
accomplish ; t)ottfit|)ren, V ollfirecfen, rol^te^en, to execute. The 
prefixes 6e, er, V er, ^er, are unaccented ; all the others are semi- 
accented. 

Observation. — The formation and use of separable compound verbs is 
more frequent in German than in English, The English compound verbs, 
e. g. to break forth, to break in, to break off, to break out, to break zip, do not 
differ in point of signification from the German separable compound verbs, 
e.g. ^erDorbrec&en, ein6re#en, abbxeityen, cut $6 red) en, aufbrecfren, and have 
therefore the same accentuation. The difference consists merely in the 
different modes of construction adopted by the two languages ; in conse- 
quence of which the preposition, which in English always follows the verb, 
is in German frequently placed before the verb, and not separated from 
it. The prefixes &e, ex, X)tX, ent, %ZX, correspond to the English prefixes be, 
for, un, dis, in bezvail, forget, undress, displease ; and the prefixes butdfr, 
Winter, ttntev, UbtX, um, tribet*, to the English under, over, with, in undertake, 
overtake, withstand. 

Prefixes. 

§60. 

The prefix 6e, like the English be in to bespeak, denotes a 
transitive relation to an object acted upon, and therefore 
changes intransitive into transitive verbs ; e. g. in fcewetrien and 
Gestagen, to bewail ; bitvadhm, to watch ; Bereben, to persuade ; 
Bejtreiten, to bestrew. Prefixed to transitive verbs, it alters the 
relation in which the simple verb stands towards an object; 
e. g. Befermen, to confess ; Belecjen, to cover ; Bemalen, to paint 
(the walls) ; BepfTan^eu, to plant (a garden with trees) ; Be* 
rait&cn, to rob (a person) ; Befcfjenfen, to present (one with 
something) ; which differ from the simple verbs implying to 
know, to lay, to paint (a picture), to plant (a tree), to steal 
(something), to give. By means of the same prefix transitive 


ETYMOLOGY. 55 

derivative verbs are formed from substantives and adjectives ; 
e. g. 6e#a6en, to present one ; &emt#cn, to give trouble ; fce= 
lol;nen, to reward; 6e#vau£en, to limit; 6e#Uufen, to make 
happy ; fcefleiben, to clothe ; fcefmcn, to free ; fcegiinfHgen, to 
favour; from ®a6c, WU\l)c, £ol;n, ©ran^e, ©liicf, SUib, frei, 
gtillfftg. Many verbs of this description, e. g. 6c^a6cn, Befvcien, 

fcclufiigen, fcegimff $en ; and Befcfrcven, to give a share ; fcefeelen, 

to animate; 6etf)bten, to infatuate; 6efd}n)eVCU, to charge ; 6e= 
fdbafti^Ctt, to employ one ; fcmtljiCjCll, to appease ; 6efviebt$en, 
to satisfy; — are only used in this compound form, and never 
as simple verbs (^Ctbcn, fretett, &c). 

§61. 

The prefixes Cf and t>Cf signify a relation to an object, which 
is conceived as a personal one : er implies a direction towards 
or in favour of this personal object, and f Cf the direction ^rom 
or to the disadvantage of the same. The personal object re- 
ferred to is either expressed by the dative case ; e. g. in ClUCttt 
evlattfcen, to permit one; etWttt ertyeiktt, to impart to one; 

emem wfcieten, to forbid one # ; eiuem t»e^ett;en, to forgive 

one; — or understood ; e.g. in erfpoten, to save; erlan^en, to 
attain ; wlieven, to loose ; t?evfdbn3inben, to disappear. 

The personal object referred to is either the subject of the 
verb; e. g. in CVWCvbcn, to acquire ; erlatKJCn, to obtain ; evlefWtt, 
to learn ; et^WHH^en, to obtain by force; and tferltemi, to loose; 
Wr^Cj? CH, to forget ; t)ctfdbetlfcn 9 to give away ; — or another sub- 
ject; e. g. in ern?iebent, to return; etflami, to explain; C^et^CtT, 
to show ; and V wfjntdfjCn, to promise ; t>erfa#en, to refuse ; t?et= 
traucn, to trust ; t i er#dten, to retaliate. The personal relation 
is more generalized in ertyctltett, to preserve ; cv&efceil, to raise ; 
CVl;cllen, to light up ; erfdjaffcn, to create ; evfdbcillCtt, to appear ; 
and v ev^ecten, to lay waste ; t>evfcnf en, to sink ; wrbtmt'etn, to 
darken ; wrnid)ten, to annihilate ; tferfcjwinben, to disappear. 

The prefix cr more especially assumes the signification of 

acquisition in evfcetteln, et^umrqen, cmrbeiten, erljcucMn, crimen, 

evja^en, to obtain by begging, by force, by labour, by hypo- 

* £>I)ne Me ®<i<n e r 6 f ii f> t Uwn Me Grwite. Schiller. 


56 ETYMOLOGY. 

crisy, by lies, by hurting*; — and of a progressive development 
and improvement in erBUttyett, to get blossoms ; evwac&fett, to 
grow up ; envadbeilj to awaken ; tffforf eifc to grow strong ; ftd) 
ctmanncn, to take courage ; evrotljen, to blush. 2?W, on the 
other hand, signifies a loss in tjevfptelen, Wtthtfen, t^etfdblafen, 
vetfaumen, ucrprafl^n, to lose by playing, by drinking, by 
sleeping, by delaying, by feasting; — a deterioration in MX- 
BUt^eiT, to lose the blossoms ; t?ev6ktcbctt, to grow pale ; V^xboX- 

rat, to wither; tmfallcn, to decay; tjerroitynen, t>et#e&en, to 

spoil (a child) ; — and mistake in uerfetttteit, to mistake ; ftcb t» iX- 
Vecfmen, to count wrong ; (id) tOTeben, to speak amiss ; jicf) ViX'~ 
feljen, to see wrong, to mistake f . In some instances, however, 
e. g. in etfvicren, to freeze to death ; etfcfttccf CH, to be frightened ; 
Ctlbfcfren, to be extinguished ; webeln, to ennoble ; twfement, 
to refine ; fcvfdboncvn, to embellish ; verBeffem, to improve ; 
and many others equally formed from adjectives in the com- 
parative degree, — the prefixes iX and X)iX are not opposed to 
one another in their signification. 

§ 62. 
When the prefix ent occurs before transitive derivative verbs 
formed from substantives or adjectives, — e.g. in entpaitpten, to 
behead ; entfefleltt, to unfetter ; eMfldben, to undress ; eilttvaften, 
to enervate; eiltfeeletl, to exanimate; mtlaXVltt, to unmask; 
entljdUgen, to profane; entfc|)ulbt^cn, to exculpate; most of 
which are not met with as simple verbs, — it expresses a nega- 
tion, like the corresponding prefix un in English J. From 
this negative prefix differs that which stands before other 
verbs, radical or derivative, transitive or intransitive ; e. g. in 

ent^eljen, cntfTtc(;en, to escape ; emfu&ren, to carry off; emfer= 

tien, to remove; entveijjen, to snatch from; entfa#ett, to re- 
nounce : it has quite a different sense, and merely implies 


* 2>er gftmin nm£ I)in<iu6 in» feinbtidje £efcen, 

9J?ug pfTanjen unb fcf)nffen, 

(frliften, errnffen, 

9)?u0 roetten unb nxigen 

2)rt£ ©Uirf 511 e r j o g e n . Schiller. 
f SfBenn bu g(<iu6fT, id) roer&e eine9?o((e in beinem ©pte(e fpiefen, ^nfT bu bicf; in mir 
i> erred) net. ffcA. 

| 2>er (Sieger frefjt e tttfii n b i g t. Wieland. 


ETYMOLOGY. 57 

separation *. In etttfyvecljen, to answer ; entfcieteil, to bid; ent= 
jjalten, to contain, the prefix ent stands in place of an, which 
in the same way has been changed into imp before the labial 
sound in etttpfefjlen, to recommend; empfdtt^en, to receive; 

empfhiben, to feel. 

The prefix ^er implies the dissolution of a whole into its 
parts, and therefore generally its destruction ; e. g. in $er$e()en, 
to liquify ; ^fallen, to fall to pieces ; gevfe^en, to decompose ; 
gcrfdblacjcn, to strike to pieces f. 

Observation. — Prefixes stand only before simple verbs, and not before 
compound ones; for verbs like fceobacfyten, to observe; beauftrageit, to 
charge; peranttf Often, to account for; are not made from the verbs cbatf)-- 
ten, &c. but from the substantives Dkafyt, 9Ulftrafl, %\\X\V Ott. Nor can 
verbs compounded with prefixes generally be again compounded with ad- 
verbs. Verbs like anbefefrlen, to recommend; afU'rfeun?n,to acknowledge* 
anuertraucn, to trust ; UCrfce&alten, to reserve ; are anomalous compounds : 
and the most part of them, — e.g. atlfcelattgen, to concern; aufevjteftfu, to 

rise from the dead ; auferbauen, to edify ; aufevlegen, to enjoin ; au3er(efen, 
au^etwa^lcn, to choose ; — are not employed whenever the construction of 
the sentence requires that the separable component should be separated 
from the verb. 

§ 63. 

When the adverbs bttrdb, through ; I) inter, behind ; u6er, 
over : Miter, under ; unt, round, about ; ttufcer, against ; foil, 
fully, compounded with verbs, have the subordinate accent, 
they are of the description of prefixes, and form inseparable 
compound verbs (§ 59). When these adverbs are employed 
as prefixes, their original signification is generalized in a pe- 
culiar way, like that of the English over, under, out, with, in 
to overact, to undertake, to outbid, to withdraw. In this way, 
e. g. bltrdf) implies a relation to the whole of a space or body, in 
butc{)blatteni, to turn over (a book) ; buvcl)brui#en, to penetrate ; 
butdbfbtfcJKn, to scrutinize thoroughly. Many verbs have dif- 
ferent significations, according as they are either inseparable 
compound verbs with the full accent laid upon the verb, or 
separable compound verbs with the full accent laid upon the 

* ®(»e Staffer entftiirjt btt @telfe i>e$ geffen*. Gothe. 
f ©ief), nne fie aiie in etnem ^ut jerftte&en. Wieland. 
2)ie 5t>ertfe finb $ err o tin en. Schiller. 


58 ETYMOLOGY. 

adverbial component; the former being generally transitive, 
the latter, on the other hand, having for the most part an in- 
transitive signification. Thus we distinguish, 

Inseparable. Separable. 

hlltf » rln«f h, to penetrate . . from { » "^* JJ 9 ™' t0 make ° ne ' S W3y 

buvcf)ge|jet1, to walk from one > tbur$gef)en, to go through, to 

end to the other ) t escape. 

tuft* l a tl ft II, to run from one ) _ bu ^ lfluf tQ mn through> 

end to the other ) 

bmd) retfe n, to travel over — biivd) f etfen, to travel through. 

v cr t <. / i ^ * btircftfebetl, to look through (a 

burdb f e & e n, to penetrate (a plot) — J k\ 

burd? ff ret(|) en, to wander over — b U r d) ffretdben, to strike out. 
tifcevfU&r en, to convince — U 6 erfu^rett, to convey over. 

U6trgt»f It, to pass in silence . . - \ »*«**««. '° S° °™-> to P ass 

I over. 

Ufcer f # V 1 1 1 e n, to transgress . . — tibtV ferret ten, to step over. 

iifcer fe 1 3 en, to translate _ J Ufcer^en, to go over (across a 

"' " t river). 

UbtV t r e t b t n, to exaggerate — U b e r treifcen, to distil (spirits). 

unter&ctlten, to entertain — unterfjal ten, to hold under. 

untev fd&ieben, to substitute j _ u n t e v Wc6 t0 shove under# 

falsely > 

,.mA a K.^v. x l^-i < um fle^ftl, to make a roundabout, 

um A en en, to go round, to avoid — ] ® J ' ' 

i to converse. 

tim f f e t b e n, to clothe about . . — u m f letben, to change dress. 

The adverb ttiig (Engl, mis) is in German, as in English, 
only employed as a prefix ; e. g. mif?6 V a U CJK n? to abuse ; 
Utijjfallenj to displease. Like foil in a few compounds (§ 59), 
W ieber, again, has assumed the nature of a prefix in uriebeffyoktt? 
to repeat. 

Observation i.— As the prefixes burcfr, fcintev, Uber, unter, um, ttnber, mt£, 

generally express a transitive relation to an object, the verbs compounded 
with them generally give rise to substantives of the form un# (§ 43) ; e.g. 
Untenanting, conversation, entertainment j Uefcerjeugung, conviction ; Utt; 
terfcfteibting, distinction. When, however, primary substantives are formed 
from the same verbs, e.g. Unterftaft, subsistence; Unterfc^teb, difference ; 
Unterfcfcrift, signature ; Uebevfatl, surprise; SBiberjfanb, resistance ; ffllfi; 
fcraucf), abuse ; 9J?ifgunff, envy (§ 33, 34), the principal accent is always 
laid on the prefix. 

Observation 2. — In order to know whether in any particular instance the 


ETYMOLOGY. 59 

adverbial components burdb, fotnter, Ubev, UlttCV, UW, wiber, mi)?, have the 
principal accent and are separable, or, being prefixes, have the subordinate 
accent and are inseparable, foreigners must refer to good dictionaries. 

Observations. — The prepositions au#, out; atlf, on, up; gll, to; na#, 
after; cor, before, although always forming separable compound verbs, 
frequently have their signification so generalized, that they in this respect 
are like prefixes. Thus au$ implies finishing an action in au^&auett, Cttt£; 

maten, to finish a house, a painting; augru&en, au^foJHafen, to rest, to 
sleep enough; auSblUten, au^tan^en, to cease bleeding, dancing * : — auf 

expresses opening in auftfmn, aufma#en, auffcfcliefen, to open; auffnops 

fen, to unbutton; atlfbecfen, to uncover; — and consuming in ailf&reiweit, 
flufcften, atlfte&ren, to consume by burning, eating; aufmfcetl, to annihi- 
late :— 3U implies shutting or covering in ^Uttiacfren, 3Ufcf)lte§en, to close; 
gufnb'pfen, to button ; gubecfen, to cover; ^ufcetfen, to heal up (a wound) : 
— t\ad) implies doing in imitation of another in na#fpre$en, ttac&fteten, to 
speak, to pray, in imitation of another :— and VOX signifies doing before one t 

in order to show how to do, in povfagen, t>ovfpve#en, porfingen, cormacfcen, 

to say, to speak, to sing, to do, for that purpose before another. 

Observation 4. — Foreigners can never understand perfectly the meaning 
of German words, unless they acquire a facility in tracing derivatives to 
their respective primitives and to their roots (if these are known), and in 
resolving compounds into their components. The following derivative and 
compound words may serve as exercises for analysing : 

2>e:badN=fam;fett, considerateness, root benfen. 

2tereb:fam:fett, eloquence, — veben. 

&e-ru^i^en, to appease, — ru&en. 

6e*madM#en (ft#), to seize, — mogen. 

2)anf'&ar=feit, gratitude, — benfen. 

(Snt^alt'fam^'ett, abstemiousness,... — fatten. 

©e*6re<ftltrMett, frailty, — &ve#en. 

©e»fpradtf8*feit, talkativeness, — fpretften. 

Un=t&a=t4g=feit, inactivity, — t&un. 

25unbe5=geno^e, an ally, — fcinbenandgeniefjen. 

@&rsfcegterbe, ambition, — (be) ge&ren. 

@&r*a6;f#neiber, slanderer, — fcftnetben. 

e^r=er6tetig, respectful, — frteten. 

©r&s&efc&vei&und, geography, — fd&rei&en. 

•^elbsgUfl, campaign, , — gtefcet). 

3J?iifftfi*ganger, idler, — gefjen. 

neu^iertg, curious, — (6e) ge&ven. 

Umab^angtgfeit, independence, ... — fwngen. 

* S)ec ©tutrn fynt <i u $ g e t & t. Schiller, 
2Geine bid) <ui6. Schiller. 


60 ETYMOLOGY. 

SECTION II. — Of the different kinds of Words and 
their Inflection. 

Chapter I. — Of Verbs. 

§ 64. 

Verbs are, in point of form, either Radical verbs (§ 31), or 
Derivative verbs (§ 37), and either Simple or Compound verbs 
(§ 59) ; and, in point of signification they are either In- 
transitive or Transitive. In radical verbs the signification, 
either transitive or intransitive, is not distinguished by the 
form of the verb ; and many of them are employed in both 
significations (§ 31). Derivative and compound verbs, on the 
other hand, are generally distinguished as transitive or intran- 
sitive by their form. Derivative verbs are for the most part 
transitive, and of the description of Factitive verbs (§ 5, 37); 
and compound verbs with the prefixes 6et, buvcfj, filter, lifter, 
Wrier, tint, Unber, mig, are also, with a few exceptions, transi- 
tive (§60, 63). 

§ 65. 
Many transitive verbs, — e. g. cjrattten, to afflict ; tt>et#ew, to 
refuse something; taafcJbeil, to deceive; fe$en, to place; U$m, 
to lay ; aXQttn, to vex; 6ett>e#ett, to move something ; eitrmeftT, 
to remind ; vuT;men, to praise ; ^iiten, to guard ; t>eranfcem 5 to 
alter something ; urtteilKVfen, to subdue, — are rendered intran- 
sitive by assuming the rejleocive form ; e. g. jidb Cjtameil, to be 
grieved: (id; iK^cm, to refuse; fidb taitfcfcen, to err; (icfj fcgcn, 
to sit down ; ftdb Ic^eil, to lay down ; (id; argent, to be vexed ; 

(id; 6ett>e.aen, to move ; (Id) erinwvn, to recollect ; jict viil;merr, 

to boast; (ic|) ^ttten, to take heed; ft'cf) Kvmtbem, to alter; (?d& 
UiitCVitevfcn, to submit (§ 5). Many verbs, however, are only 
employed in the reflexive form ; e. g. (id) fdyiintett, to be 
ashamed; (id; fel;nen, to long; ftdb fceftmiert, to reflect; (id; hi- 

fletgen, to endeavour ; ftdb emgiien, to happen ; (icb fcebmiFcn, 

to thank ; fid) er&ClVmcn, to have pity ; ftd) entfcWiegen, to re- 
solve ; (id; ltntCr|M;C!1, to dare ; fid; JVibevfe^CU, to oppose. 


ETYMOLOGY. 61 

The reflexive form of verbs is frequently employed in the 
plural number, in order to express a reciprocal action between 
two or more subjects ; e. g. bie Rmbm filacjen fid), the boys 
fight one with another; tie .fnmbe fceigen fid), the dogs bite one 
another; fife l;aflcit fid), they hate one another; ttur Wtbm Un3 
Wicbct fef)H, we shall see one another again : it then assumes 
the name of the Reciprocal form of verbs*. This form may 
also be adopted by intransitive as well as by transitive verbs ; 
in which case the reflexive pronoun stands in the dative case ; 
e. g. Me 2>mber #teidben fid), the brothers resemble one an- 
other ; fie Be.qe.qwn {id), they meet (one another) ; ftHV bvitcf ten 
IU13 bk .Oiittbe, we shook hands (with one another). 

Obsc? , vation.~The reflexive form of verbs is very extensively employed 
in German; it in some measure supplies the middle voice of the Greek. 

§ 66. 
The passive voice of verbs is in German, as in English, 
formed by means of an auxiliary verb ; but in German, wev= 
i>CM, and not fetn (to be), is the auxiliary verb of the passive 

voice; e. g. id) roerbe #elie6t, I am loved; ev tjr #efdbfa#en voox- 

ben, he has been beaten. The passive voice may, like the re- 
flexive form (§ 65), be considered in some measure as a pecu- 
liar form of intransitive verbs: we accordingly find that those 
two forms are frequently employed one for another, not only 
in different languages, but even in one and the same language. 
In English, where the reflexive form is wanting, an intransi- 
tive notion is frequently expressed by the passive voice, as is 
also done in Latin in the deponent verbs. The German lan- 
guage generally employs the reflexive form in these cases ; 
e. g. fid) UUUlbern, to be surprised (Lat. mirari) ; fid) fveuen, to 
be pleased (Lat. Icetari); fid) 6etrii6cn, to be afflicted (Lat. con- 
tristari); fid) 6ewe#en, to be moved (Lat. moveri); fid) VZX'dxi- 
bern, to be changed ; fid) breJKtt, fid) ttWlben, to turn (Lat. verti); 
fid) fdbamen, to be ashamed ; fid) wbunfetn, fid) tjerfinjrern, to 


* 5Serb' id) 5iv>ei £er$en trennen, bie fi df> fan ben? Sc/i. 
(?rft muptet Sfyr'S uertragen, «JS SSriiber eud) ju fefyn. Sch. 
@te I) at jwei <&fyne, bie fid) tobtid) t> n f fen. Sch. 


62 ETYMOLOGY. 

be eclipsed ; ftdb Beaten, to be converted *. The use of the 
passive voice in the personal form is in German admitted only 
when the action to be expressed is really a suffering ; e. g. bet 4 
©cWitflel iff von mix gefunben roorben, the key has been found 
by me ; bte ®Wge VOixb Von i^ttt BcantWOtkt, the question is 

answered by him ; et wixb von feimn gtt^ovetn t? erftatiben, he 

is understood by his hearers ; bk§ ffittfftUQ it>tvb VOW bin 
(gd^mteben $zhx&ixd)t, this instrument is used by the smiths. 
But even this suffering is frequently conceived as an intransi- 
tive action, and consequently expressed by the reflexive form, 
when the active object does not require to be mentioned; e. g. 
bet ©C&tttflH tyoX fic{) ^efmibcn, the key has been found ; btefe 
%xagt BeauttVOttet fldf> ktc()t, this question is easily answered ; 
t>a$ Vtxfttfyt (id[) VOX] fel6j?, that is self-evident ; btefd ^erF^eug 
|)anb^aBet fidb letcH this instrument is easily managed f . 

Observation. — The propriety of classing the passive voice with the intran- 
sitive verbs further appears from the practice of the Greek, where it differs 
very little from the middle voice (§ 65, Obs.), and from that of the Russian 
and other Sclavonian languages, in which it is quite the same with the re- 
flexive form, 

§67. 
Impersonal verbs are those which are used only in the third 
person singular, and in which the subject of a verb is expressed 
in a manner quite indeterminate by the indefinite pronoun e$ 
(see § 122). Some impersonal verbs, e. g. e$ tC^UCt? it rains; 
e£ fdbmtet, it snows; e£ bomiert, it thunders; e£ hii&t, it 
lightens, are common to most languages : other impersonal 
forms, however, occur in German, which are not used in Eng- 
lish. In the first place the passive voice of intransitive verbs 
is employed impersonally, as in Latin, when the subject of the 

* m fuiit fid) bet uerobete spflttflft. Sch. 

Uebec bem mutagen ©d)nnmmer fd)(ie0t fid) bee 9?<id)en. Sch. 

2)ie ge(bet & e cf e n fid) mit neuem ©din. Sch. 

2WeS &at fid) nun erf tint, 
f ^pforten fcauen fid) nu$ griinen Sweiflen, unb um bie ©riufe min&et fid) bcr 
^tflnj. Sch. 

gin faftetf)afte6 2e6en 6 it # t fid) in WianQti unb (yrniebrigttng. Sch. 

Grjj' fid) tin £enfer fur mid) fin bet. Sch. 

2>nS (ernt fid) nur um bee 3re(bf>errn ^erfon. Sch. 

Zi)(it(n finb gefd)ef)en bie fid) nie ucrgeOen unb uetgeffen. Sch. 


ETYMOLOGY. 63 

verb is to be expressed only in an indeterminate way ; e. g. e$ 
Wixb #etattfen, they run (Lat. curritur) ; e$ nmrbe getcm^t, there 
was dancing (Lat. saltabatur) # : and in this case especially 
the reflexive form is frequently employed in the room of the 
passive voice ; e. g. z$ tan^t, e3 fcblaft {id) tykx QWX 9 this place 
does well for dancing, for sleeping f. 

There are moreover, in German, impersonal verbs, in which 
the subject of an intransitive action is represented as an ob- 
ject; e. g. e£ tmvflet mid), C$ tmn#ert mid), I am thirsty, hungry; 
e£ friert mid), I am chilled ; e$ fdfmubevt mid), I shudder. This 
mode of speaking expresses not so much the condition as the 
feeling of thirst, of hunger, &c. 

The verbs e£ teuet (mid)), I repent; e3 fveitet (mid?), I 
am glad; e$ ttUWiXVt (mtcf)), I wonder; e$ baudbt (mid)), e$ 
bitllft (ttttr), methinks ; e£ atjtiet [mix), my mind forebodes ; 
e$ Bdtefct (mix), 1 am pleased; e$ cjelutfet (midb), I long for; 
e$ $tlt, it concerns ; e3 tyeigt, it is said ; e$ fdbcint, it seems, 
and some others, also have the form of impersonal verbs. 
Properly speaking, however, they are no impersonal verbs, 
because the subject denoted by the pronoun e$ is again ex- 
pressed by the accessory sentence following, or by a verb in 

the supine ; e. g. e$ nut mid), ba$ id) e$ get&cm l;a6e, that I 

have done it; or e$ fletljan £U |)a6en, to have done it. 

The verb ^e6cn 5 to give, is employed impersonally in a pe- 
culiar way in order to express existence, as is implied by there 
is, there are, in English, and by ily a in French ; e. g. C$ $t6t 
£eitte, there are people; e$ #i6t faille Sh$0Vnet, unicorns do 
not exist J. However, e$ $t6t never stands in the room of 
there is when a locality is to be expressed ; e. g. in there (in 
that place) is (dwells) a friend of m*ne in London. 

Observation. — One and the same verb frequently assumes different signi- 
fications, according as its form is altered; e.g. |Tel(cn, to place, fid) freUCH, 

to feign ; perge&en, to pass away, ficb rerge&en, to commit a fault ; pevfaflen, 

* Urn «£errfd)nft tint) um gretfyeit nnrb gernngen. Sch. 
f 55on eurct 5<il)rt tefytt fid)'$ nicfyt imtner tuteber. Sch. 
Sefctyaft traumt f id)'S untei' biefem 33aume. Sch 


t Gr$ Qibt Dofe ©eifter, tie in be$ $ttenfd)en fBriift ifyrcn 9©ofyffftij ndjmen. £c/j. 
Gr£ qibt im 5ttenfd)en(e&cn ^ugenOUrfe, n?o tx bem £Gi'(tget(T tinker t ft aU fonft. 

<?«flf&t nod) 9?iefen, bod? feine fitter gifrt e$ niefyr. fi£& 


64> ETYMOLOGY. 

to leave, fid) oerlaffeil (auf (Sinen), to rely on one; yeviTe&en, to under- 
stand, fid) (auf <Sttt>al) oerjte&en, to be skilful in something, e$ wrffe&et 
ft#, it is a matter of course; id) fuuigere Uttb btltffe, I am without eating 
and drinking, e0 Jjltnom Uttb bUTjret rtticf), I feel hunger and thirst; fjctfen, 
to be called, c3 f)eift, it is said. 

§ 68. 

From notional verbs, i. e. verbs implying notions of action, 
we distinguish relational verbs, i. e. those which merely express 
the relations of action (§ 3, 8). The verb fein, to be, and the 
auxiliary verbs, are of this description. Whenever the predi- 
cate is expressed by an adjective or substantive, its relation to 
the subject and to the speaker, which otherwise is expressed 
by the inflection of a notional verb, is denoted by the verb 
fein (§ 7). The same verb in German, as in English, is also 
employed as an auxiliary verb of tenses. 

Auxiliary verbs are either auxiliary verbs of tenses, or aux- 
iliary verbs oimood (§ 10). 

§ 69. 

The German auxiliary verbs of tenses are, (wBen, to have, 
for the perfect and pluperfect tenses of all transitive and of 
many intransitive verbs ; fein, to be, for the same tenses of the 
most part of intransitive verbs ; and tt>evben, to become, for 
the future tenses, ^Berben also serves to make all forms of 
the passive voice (§ 66). 

Observation 1. — The verbs fyaktn and itfCtben, used by themselves, are to 
be regarded as notional verbs : trevben has the signification of the English 
to become, to grow ; e.g. er tturb m$, he becomes rich; er ttHVb alt, he 
grows old. 

Observation 2. — The verbs fcllett and W0l(en, I shall, I will, are not, as 
in English, employed as auxiliary verbs for the future tense ; nor is the 
verb fein ever employed in the sense of to be in the English expression, I 
am coming, lie is to speak. 

§ 70. 
The verbs fcnncn, I can ; biirfcn, to dare ; ntbcjen, I may ; 
mitflen, I must ; follen, I shall ; ttJoUen, I will ; and laffen, to 
let ; do not express notions of an action, but relations of mood; 
that is to say, the possibility or necessity of an action indicated 
by another verb, which is either expressed or understood, and 




ETYMOLOGY. 65 

with which they are always connected (§ 8) ; and on this 
account they are termed auxiliary verbs of mood; e. g. e? frimt 
tt>e#lattfett, he can (is able to) run away; id) mug je£t #el)en, I 
must go now. In general, possibility is expressed by fbtinett, 
biufen, mb^eri, and necessity by nutfjen, follett, wotten ; (affen 

implies necessity as well as possibility. 

The verb fbtlttCll implies physical possibility, like / can and 
/ am able in English ; e. g. bcr .0mib fatltl fcfwimmen, the dog 
can swim ; id) Faittt ben 3?Vtef lefen, I am able to read the letter: 
— biitfcn and tttbgCtt express moral possibility, i. e. liberty and 
permission : bitrfeil signifies that an action is permitted by law 
or by a person ; e. g. '^cbetntann baif SEtoffhl tragen, every body 
is permitted to bear arms ; batfid) biefcn 25l'ief (efcn ? am I per- 
mitted to read this letter? whilst mbcjen generally expresses that 
the speaker allows another person to do something; e. g. bit 
ttta#j? bert 33rief lefen, you may (I allow you to) read the letter; 
ha Ct tttiibe tft, fo ma$ et au^m^Ctl, since he is fatigued, he may 
(I allow him to) take rest; i\)x mb$et einen 2?erfucb maclben, you 
may make an attempt (I have no objection to it). From the 
physical and moral possibility of an action asserted, which is 
expressed in this way by the verbs fbrmen, buffet), tttbgen, we 
must distinguish the logical possibility of the assertion, i. e. the 
possibility granted by the speaker, which is also expressed by 

Fbrmen, mb$en, btufen ; e. g. er faun fdjon afc^eretjr fetn, it may 

be that he has set out already ; ev Fbmite M1$ vmatfytn fyabm, 
it might be that he had betrayed us : which differ from er i)at 
abreifen f bmten, he has been able to set out ; ev |mtte im$ VtX; 
ratten Former?, he might have been able to betray us. ®iivfeit 
is employed in this way only in the conditional mood, in order 
to express conjecture ; e. g. er bitlfte bit n?ol nid)t atte£ et^aljlt 
l^aBen, very likely he has not told you every thing. But mb$en 
is commonly used when a probability or conjecture is granted 
by the speaker ; e. g. in er WCUJ 9?ed;t l;a6en, he may be (I sup- 
pose he is) in the right; er mao, em 6raw WlCi\m fem, he may 
be (I believe that he is) a clever man ; ev ma$ $Max\$iQ 3^ve 
alt fein, he may be about twenty years of age ; tdb tttCiQ tjjtttl 
xva$ id) will, fo ifr e$ itnredbt, I may do what I will, it does not 
please; bit maffi lacfcen obev rceinen, e3 ifr eimrlet, you may 

laugh or cry, it is all the same. 5)ib#en implies also a wish 


66 ETYMOLOGY. 

that something may be done, and the inclination to do some- 
thing; e. g. mbge iX Bctlb ^umcffei;ren, may he return soon ; id) 
mag iljn ntdbt fcl;n, I do not like to see him ; tcf) mag rridbt tan= 

^en, I do not like to dance *. In this way mb$en assumes the 
signification of to like ,• e. g. tcf) mag btefe @pcife nicf)t, I do not 
like this meat ; id) mag ben 20eit1 tttcf)t, I do not like the wine. 
In these expressions the verb in the infinitive (to eat, to drink) 
is understood f . The use of mb#en in the signification of phy- 
sical power is antiquated in German ; e. g. gxahttt mag id) 
tlicfrt {Luc. 16. 3.) : and t?evmb#en is applied to that significa- 
tion in the room of mbgett ; e. g. mx vtxmag ii)m ^u wiber jtefjn ? 
who is able to resist him ? 

SDftifTerj implies physical necessity, and moral necessity en- 
forced by law ; e. g. alle 50?enfcfcien tmiflen jlev6en, all men must 
die ; j^inbet muffen ifyXin (Sltetn ^e^OVCben, children must (are 
obliged to) obey their parents $. ©ollett and rttclkri express 
moral necessity ; foller? 3 when it is enforced by command of 
another ; woUcn, when it depends on the active subject's own 

will; e.g. cr null md) -gaufe $efw, a&er er foil l;ier 6lei6en, 

he wishes to go home, but he must (is ordered to) stay here; 
et will alle3 £a6en unb idb foil nid)U IjaSen, he wishes to have 
everything, and me (he wishes) to have nothing §. As by 
btitfcn, fbrmen, ntoqen, not only a possibility of the action 
asserted but also the possibility of the assertion is expressed, 
in the same way niiiffen, follen, and rDollen, are frequently em- 
ployed in order to express the necessity of the assertion. Thus 
mtifjcn expresses a supposition of the speaker, whilst follett, 
like dicor in Latin, expresses a supposition on the part of the 

* 98a$ fid) uettragt mit meinet ^fHcfyt mag id) il)r gem errceifen. Sch. 

SQoi mod)t' id) roiffen rcaS ju gfaufcen ift. Sch. 
f <S i e ntogen un$ atte nid)t. Sch. 

2iud) nid)t im £obe mag id) 25einen 23unb. Sch. 
} Gfin £>6erfjaupt mufj fein. Sch. 

2)er a(tere 58rubet mu£ bem jungern roeidjen. Sch. 
3()t feib mein ©aft, id) mu£ fur. ettrc ©id)erf)eit gewn^ren. Sch. 
$iir feinen £onig mu# bflS SBotf fid) Dpfern : 
Dae ift ba$ ©d)itffaf unb ©efe$ bcr SBett. £cA. 
§ Charles, king of France, says in 'Sungfrau Don £)rfenn§ :' — " 2Me £tuppen 
dUt foil en fid) mit Sroeigen befranjen, if>re SBritber ju empfan^en unb alte Gilorfen 
foil en eS ucrfunben ba£ gtanfreid) unb 23urguno fid) neu tn-rrimben :" and Queen 
Elizabethan « $ftaria ©mart' says : — " ©terfcen foil fte (Mary) unb er (Leicester) 
felt fie faKen fe()n, unb nad) ii;t frerben." 


ETYMOLOGY. 67 

public, and wollen a supposition of a third person ; e. g. er 
ntttj* fe&V fVanf ^ettJefen fem, he must have been very ill ; er 

nwfTfefjr rcidb fein, he must be very rich ; er foil in ber ©tabt 
fein, (finite roollen iljn #efefni £)a6en, he is supposed to be in 

town, some people think or say that they have seen him ; ber 

£bmfl foil #eftor6en fein, £- — - will e3 in bet 3eitun# #elefen 

IjaBen, it is said that the king died, L thinks or says that 

he has read it in the newspapers *. 

Bafjen expresses on the one hand a permission, and on the 
other a command and causation ; e. g. laj? il)n $eljn, let him 
go, permit him to go ; er lagt ben 2?o#el (Tie#en, he lets the 
bird fly ; ftc laffen t)0n £onbon Ul;ren f ommen, they get watches 
brought from London ; er ld£t bin .gmnb tan^en, he makes the 
dog dance ; ber £bni# i)at ijjtl l)inxitf)ten laffen, the king caused 
him to be executed. In expressions like b&$ lajjt fcjfbtt, that 
looks pretty ; fte fjafcen ifym md)t§ #elaffen, they have left him 
nothing ; — laffen is a notional verb, and requires to be distin- 
guished from the auxiliary. 

Observation. — The verb tfjlM is not employed in High-German as an 
auxiliary verb of mood, like the English to do, which renders an expression 
positive in such phrases as, he does come, do go y and has therefore come into 
general use in interrogative and negative sentences; e.g. does he come? he 
does not go. 

§71. 

The conjugation of verbs expresses the different relations of 
the notion expressed by the verb to the speaker. The forms 
of conjugation are, Moods for the relation of reality; Tenses 
for the relation of time ; and Persons, in the singular and plu- 
ral Numbers, for the agreement of the verb with the subject, 
and for the relation of the latter to the speaker (§ 8). 

By the conjugation of verbs, four different moods are formed 
in German : viz. the Indicative mood for real existence asserted 
by the speaker; e.g. b&§ _^inb ttKint, the child cries; b&$ 
£inb fyat #e wet net, the child has cried;— the Conjunctive 
mood for real existence asserted by a subject spoken of; e. g. 
bk WdxUxin fagt, ba$ j?htb fd;reie, or Ijafce #efcfmeen, the 


* 2)u roilfft u)n 5U einem guten Sroetfe fcetrogen fyafcen ! Sch. 
(?S foil eine rcicfytige 9?<id)rirf)t fein, tybr' icfy. Sch. 

F 2 


68 ETYMOLOGY. 

nurse says the child cries, &c. ; — the Conditional mood for 
that possibility which is not conceived as really existing ; e. g. 
f'dmt cr bocb nrieber au^bem @ra6e, could he come back from 
the tomb! fjattet ityx bodb meinen 9?at£) fcefol^t, had you 
followed my advice ! — and the Imperative mood for the 
necessity enforced by the will of the speaker ; e. g. ©pridf) ! 
speak ! *• 

Observation. — Many other relations of reality are not expressed by those 
forms of inflection which are termed moods, but by auxiliary verbs of 
moods (§ 70) ; e. g. ex f a tt tt, Cf rtl U % t ommen, he may, he must come ; — 
or by adverbs of moods (§ 10); e.g. we tin Ct frimmt, if he comes; er 
fb'ttimt V telle icfrt, he comes perhaps; — or by the construction of the 
sentence; e. g. fb'mmt er? does he come? (§8.) 

§72. 

The relation of time is expressed by the tenses of the verb. 
An action expressed by the verb is, in point of time, either 
present, i. e. coinciding with, or past, i. e. antecedent to, or 
future, i. e. subsequent to, the present existence of the speaker. 
Tenses are absolute if they imply only relation to the presence 
of the speaker : as the present tense, id) fpred)e ; the preter- 
perfect tense, id) fjafce #efprodben; and the first future, id) 
SWbe fpfec&en :— they are relative if they imply at the same 
time a relation of time to some other event ; as the imperfect 
tense, id) fpradb; the pluperfect tense, id) fyattt $tfpXOd)m; and 
the second future tense, id) ttW&e gefprpcfcetl (jafcett. The im- 
perfect and pluperfect being employed in historical narrative, 
are moreover distinguished by the name of the historical 
tenses. 

§73. 

The personal forms of conjugation are the same in German 
as in English ; but they have preserved their distinctive signs 
of inflection, which have been almost entirely lost in English; 

e. g. id) reb=e, bu veb=e(r, er reb-et, wit revert, ii)t reb et, jie veb.-ett. 

The imperative mood has separate forms of conjugation only 
for the second person singular and plural ; e. g. rcb^e, teb=et. 

* ©mmmntif, § 10. 


ETYMOLOGY. 69 

§ 74. 
Infinitives and participles do not express the notion of ac- 
tion in the relations of personality or reality to the speaker. 
Properly speaking, therefore, they are not so much forms 
or moods of the verb (§ 3), as rather verbal substantives 
and verbal adjectives, i. e. substantives and adjectives which, 
like verbs, admit of an objective relation (§32). We compre- 
hend them under the term of Participial forms. They are ad- 
mitted as supplementary forms in the conjugation of verbs, 
because they are employed in the construction of the com- 
pound tenses. 

§75. 
The participial infinitive, which must be distinguished from 
the substantive infinitive (§ 42), admits of no article and of no 
declension. There are two forms of infinitives : — a simple one, 
as lic6en, fommen, for the present ; and a compound one, as 
$elte6t f)a6et), ^efommen fem, for the past time. The infinitive 
is employed in all forms of the verb compounded with the 
auxiliary verbs of mood, tornien, bttrfen, &c. (§ 70) : it concurs 
with the auxiliary verb of tense, IKVten, to form the future 

tenses ; e. g. er farm reben, er mug reben, er nurb reben, er witb 
$erebet l?a6en. 

The infinitive used as a substantive is frequently employed 
as the subject of the sentence ; e. g. (BeBcn iff felt$er aU 9?e£>nten, 
to give is more blessed than to take; 2?or$en ttiacbt©Or#en, bor- 
rowing makes sorrowing ; Gaffer ttitlfetl ift geftwb, to drink 
water is wholesome *. The infinitive has the power of a 
governed case only when it stands with the verbs l)etj? en, to 
order ; ^etfcn and nemien, to call ; {jet fen, to help ; lel;ren, to 
teach ; lernen, to learn ; e. g. er l)k§ mid) fc(tftCt<jet1, he ordered 
me to be silent ; ba$ £e$t (fceijje id), nenne id)) ©ott twfucften, 
I call that to tempt God; tjilf mit atUiUll, help me to work; 
er lejjrt Ober lernt fdf)ret&en, he teaches or learns writing. In 
particular expressions, however, the infinitive stands also after 
fmfcen and tljlW ; such are, bll (jaft #Ut reben, it is easy for you 

* (Stetben ift ntcfytS ; bod) fefcen un& nid)t fefyen, bn£ ift ein Ungfucf. Sch. 
•fcrtnbefn ift (eid^t, benf en fdjroer, nad) bcm ©ebacfyten fynnbefn unfcequem. Glithe. 


70 ETYMOLOGY. 

to talk ; it t&llt ntcf)t3 aU flaxen, he does nothing but com- 
plain. 

The infinitive, moreover, follows the verbs |>bmt, to hear ; 
fetjen, to see; ful;icn, to feel; fi'ttberi, to find; madben, to make; 
Heifcen, to remain; #el)en, to go; fasten, to ride; reiten, to 
ride on horseback; in expressions like id) f)bre $n f^tedbcn 
(speaking) ; id) fe£>e #11 tctr^en (dancing) ; id) fanb u)n fdblafen 
(sleeping); bit madbjl mid) ladben, you make me laugh; id) 
6lci6e ft§en, I remain sitting; er Qttyt fcettehl, he goes a begging; 
it f'd^Vt obev reitet fpa^ieven, he takes an airing in a carriage or 
on horseback*. In these expressions the German present 
participle (fptedbenb, tan^cnb) has assumed the form of an in- 
finitive. 

After the auxiliary verb laffett, the infinitive of the active 
voice is always used, although the signification be passive ; 
e. g. er laj?t Ctn 33ud) etn&mben, he orders a book to be bound ; 
fie laffcn ben ^ie6 (}an#en, they order the thief to be hanged f. 

§ 76. 

When the infinitive is employed as a verbal substantive in 
an attributive or objective case, the relation distinguished by 
the inflection of a substantive is expressed by the preposition 
^U, to ; e. g. bit (Me$ettf)eit £lt fprecf)en, the occasion of speak- 
ing; ber 2£unfdb £U $efallen, the desire of pleasing; QiVoo^Wt 
^U arfcettett, accustomed to work ; er l;offt £tt geroinmn, he hopes 
to win : and this form of the infinitive we term the Supine. 
When the verb is a separable compound (§ 59), the preposi- 
tion is placed between the separable component and the verb 
in the infinitive; e.g. er n?Uttfcf)t Ctf^ureifen, he wishes to set 
out; er Bittet itym Bei^ufM)!], he requests to assist him. 

In general the infinitive (without £tt) stands for the nomina- 
tive case, and the supine (with £u) for all other cases of the 
verbal substantive. After the verbs tjeifjen, nenneHj ^elfen, 
letjren, letnen, fja&en, ttjim, however, the infinitive takes the 

* 25et £ob bet %iie$e tyeifst mid) bid) ten. Gellert. 

(Fr fief) t fie ec rotten, tie fdf^ne ©eftnit, unb fiefyt fie etfcfeidjen unb fin fen 

f)in. Sch. 
Wit (Srnuen bieibt tinfcr 9?ittcr fl e f) n . Wieland. 

f 2>ret Zaqe ti<irf) einnnbet (ie£ tie £eilige fid) fef)n. Sc/i. 


ETYMOLOGY. 71 

place of the supine (J 75) ; and on the other hand, the supine 
is very often employed instead of the infinitive ; e. g. em Rinb 
JU taufc&en ifj: leidbt, to deceive a child is easy ; ber 2?erfudf>uno. 
£U ttnberjMjn \\t fcfciKr, to resist temptation is difficult. And 
the supine is always taken when the subject of the sentence, 
which is expressed, is placed after the verb, the indefinite pro- 
noun e$ taking the place of the subject; e. g. e$ ifr tttcfrt #eftmb 
Vid 2Bcin $U trmfen, it is not wholesome to drink much wine; 
e$ ifr nixQlid) ©pradben £U levnen, it is useful to learn languages *. 
Expressions compounded of the supine and of the verb (ja= 
6en or fetn, always imply either relation of possibility ; e. g. er 
£at tftel ©elb au^U0.e6en, he has much money to spend; 

em grojjcr $rei» tjr ^u #en> inn err, a large prize is to be 

gained; — or the relation of necessity; e.g. er I) at etne fdbrttete 
2h'6eit ^U t?erricf)ten, he has a difficult task to perform ; grorje 
©cfjutben finb nocf) £U 6 e^ allien, great debts are still to be 
paid f . When the supine is connected in this way with the 
verb fetn, it is to be regarded as the predicate of the sentence, 
but always has a passive signification. When it is turned 
into an attributive adjective, its termination en Qu lo6--en) is 
changed into enb Qlt loB^enb); and thus a participle is formed, 
which also expresses possibility or necessity in a passive sense; 
e.g. ba$ att^UCjeBenbe (Mb, the money to be spent; bet* £U 

^ e it) inn en b e ^rei^, the prize to be won; bie ^u t?errtd;tenbe 
SlrBeit, the task to be performed ; bk % U 6 C j a \) i e n b e n ©C&ltlfc 
en, the debts to be paid. 

§77. 

There are in German three Participles : viz. the Present 

participle, e. g. fprecfrenb, speaking; (o6enb, praising; — the Past 

participle, e. g. $efprodben, spoken ; #elo6et, praised ; — and the 

Future participle, formed from the supine (§ 76), e.g. ^u fprecfeeilb, 

* Ssljnen ftefjet e$ <w fo jart ju ben fen; meinem ©imager jiemtS fid) grog unb 
fiirft(id) ju 6 em e if en. Sch. 

f 3d) r>a b e f)ier ju ran (ten. &/L— 2G<iS ^ a ft bu JjUr ju f> o r dt> e tt unb ju 
fyiiten? Sc^.—'-IBaS ^ a ft bu ^ier ju frngen, ju uerbieten? St/*.— 3d) fjafce 
biefem Ratine ftitteS ttnred)t a&sufcitten, Sch.—@t i ft nirgenbS nnjutreff en. Sch. 
— -2)ie$ ftolje %m i ft nid)t ju 6 red) en. &:£.— ftein ©tern&Ub i ft ju fefyn. SfcA. 
—Seine Sett i ft $u oerlieren. ScA.— £ier i ft bnS 93?eitt unb 2)ein, bie 9?nd>e oon 
s *r (KAutb, nid)t mehr ju fonbetn. Sch. 


72 ETYMOLOGY. 

to be spoken ; ^u lo6enb, to be praised. Though these parti- 
ciples have their distinctive names from tenses, they in general 
differ not so much in the relation of time which they express, 
as in their active or passive signification. The present par- 
ticiple has an active signification ; the past and the future 
participles, on the contrary, have a passive signification ; the 
future at the same time expressing possibility or necessity 
(§ 76) ; e. g. ber fracjenbe Center, the examining teacher ; fcer 
#efra#te ©d)u(er, the scholar who is examined ; bev ^U fra#enbe 
©cf)Ukr, the scholar to be examined, i. e. who may or must 
be examined; ber (joffenbe £anbuurtl}, the hoping farmer; bfc 
.qc^offte cber 311 fcoffenbe (£ntte, the harvest hoped for, or to be 
hoped for, i. e. which may be hoped for. The future participle is 
formed only from transitive verbs. The past participle is formed 
also from intransitive verbs ; in which case it has an active sig- 
nification, and generally differs from the present participle only 
by the relation of time ; e. g. bev ^efaUettC ©cfwee, the snow 
which has fallen ; bic auf#egan#ene ©OIWC, the sun which has 
risen ; compared with ber fallenbe ©dbnee, the falling snow ; 
bic aufgefjenbe ©onw, the rising sun. 

Conjugation. 
§78. 
Tenses are either simple, formed by the inflection of the 
verb itself; or compound, compounded of a participial form, 
and of one of the auxiliary verbs of tenses. In German the 
present and imperfect only are simple tenses ; all others are 
compound. The inflection of the verb itself, e. g. fpvtn#=en, 
rcb-'CH, is effected either by changing the radical vowel (§ 31), 
as fpf an#, or by terminations of conjugation, as reb^Ct-e, or 
by both ways together, as fpran^et. The indicative mood 
alone has the whole of the tenses enumerated in § 72 ; the 
conjunctive and conditional moods want the historical tenses 
(§ 72); and the imperative has only the present tense. The 
following table shows the moods, with their respective tenses 
arranged according to the relation of time expressed by the 
latter. Each tense is marked by the third person singular, 
the form of which is more distinctive than that of the other 
persons. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Ph 


oi 

Ph 




c 

CD 

$= 

rs 


£ 


05 

Q 
° < 




^5 

<5 


S CD 


..— <i> 


Ci. 

j- 

CD 

cd 

(V* 


<u 


x^ 

■o 


wO 





■3 

:» 

:s 

:=$ 

a 

B 

B 

£ 


CD 

3- 

s 


<^* 


CD 

-c- 

=3 




S4- 



3- 


<i* 

•33 

CD 

o 

«b> 

«j 

>o 

3- 

3— 

<u 

<i> 

a 

B 


CD tf> 






CD 

3 

^_, 

n 

CD 

<^* 


CD 

3- 


( a- 

3— 

3- 

^ 

3— 

CD 

CD 

^5*. 

Ci> 

CD 


3- 

CD 


J- 

s 


Jg- 


VEJ. 

e 


a 

S 


-V 


•SD$UD£ didwift 


fa 


*sdsmj u punodwoj 


74? ETYMOLOGY. 

§79. 

In German, as in all Teutonic languages, there are two 
different modes of conjugation : viz. one for radical verbs, 
called the Ancient form ; the other for derivative verbs, termed 
the Modern form of conjugation. Some radical verbs, — e.g. 
ttmdben, awake, awoke; l;iiten, hide, hid; leiten, lead, led; 
fltcjmi, seek, sought ; frreBcn, strive, strove ; fcfruJU?en, sweat ; 
tturfen, work, wrought, — have in modern German assumed 
the modern form : no derivative verb, on the contrary, is 
conjugated in the ancient form. 

In the modern form, the imperfect tense and the past par- 
ticiple are formed by the termination ct, to which in the im- 
perfect tense the personal terminations are added : e.g. tc5;Ct-C, 
^C'tcb^et. The radical sounds of the verb are not altered. 

In the ancient form, the imperfect tense and the past par- 
ticiple are formed by the change of the radical vowel ($l6tciut, 
§ 31), and the participle has the termination en. The first and 
third pers. sing, imperf. are without a termination : e. g. td[) 
fpran#, er fyvanc}, #efprun <gen (from fprin$=en). When a short 
radical vowel in consequence of being changed becomes long, 
or a long one becomes short, the final consonant also is altered 
according to that variation ; e.g. in rciten, tttt, Cjeritten; leiben, 

Utt, ^elttten; fteben, fott, gefotten; fltegen, flog, ^eflojTen; 
and in fdbaffen, fcjjuf; foramen, i am; bitten, Bat (§25, 27). 

Some radical verbs have assumed in their conjugation the 
terminations appropriate to the modern form, but have pre- 
served the change of the radical vowel peculiar to the ancient 
form. Such are, 6rin#;en, Bradb'te, jge6mcb=t, to bring, brought; 
bent-en, bacfcte, Qtba&t, to think, thought. As such verbs 
neither conform entirely with the ancient nor with the modern 
form of conjugation, they are distinguished by the denomina- 
tion of Irregular verbs. 

Observation. — The verbs of the ancient form were in the older German 
grammars classed with the irregular verbs : this principle, however, which 
is still adhered to in English grammar, has been generally rejected by the 
German grammarians of the present day, who maintain, that the conjuga- 
tion of these verbs is as regular as that of verbs of the modern form. It 
is to be remarked, however, that the number of verbs really irregular, i. e. 
conjugated according to the ancient and modern forms mixed, is much 


ETYMOLOGY. 


75 


larger in English than in German ; many verbs of the ancient form having 
in English adopted the modern form in part only, whilst in German they 
either have altogether adhered to the ancient, or have passed over com- 
pletely to the modern form : — thus, 


awake, awoke, awaked, 
seek, sought, sought, 


flee, 
lade, 


fled, fled, 
laded, laden, 


^"imodernfonn. 


fTtefjen 

Men 


\ ancient form. 


§ 80. 

The ancient and the modern forms of conjugation do not 
differ in the terminations of personal forms, except in the first 
and third pers. sing, imperf. (§ 79), and in the imperative mood 
of many verbs of the first conjugation of the ancient form (see 
§ 82). The simple tenses of the conjunctive and imperative 
moods are formed from the corresponding tenses of the indica- 
tive, from which they are distinguished only by the termina- 
tions of the personal forms. The present conditional is formed 
from the imperfect indicative, the changed vowel of which in 
the ancient form is always modified (§ 24) in the present con- 
ditional. The personal terminations of the plural number 
are the same in all moods and tenses : viz. en for the first and 
third, and Ct for the second person. 

The personal terminations of the singular number in the 
simple tenses of both forms of conjugation are seen in the 
following scheme : — 


Sing. 
1. 

2 fane. fpxhty 
' \mod. 



Conjunctive, 



Sing. 
1. 
2. 
3. 


anc. 


Imperfect (Indicative) 


mod. reb? 


-i 


e* 


76 ETYMOLOGY. 

In the terminations cfl (fprin^'-ej?) and et (fprin^Ct, fleliefc-et), 
the vowel e maj/ be dropped for the sake of eurythmy (§ 17), 
whenever euphony (§ 30) permits it (fpvmqj?, fptin^t, #dte6t) : 
and the vowel is commonly dropped in the termination etj when 
another termination follows ; e. g. in liefc^efce, ^eXteB^et^Ct 4 - Ge- 
nerally, euphony does not allow the vowel to be dropped be- 
tween (f and any final lingual consonant, nor between t and a 
final 5 or t ; e.g. in niUft, fpdf=eji, fifcNf?, fceif^ef?, tmt^ejr, 
and in fntfcet, reit^Ct, #efktb?et, 5e6lllt=et. If it is not contrary 
to this rule, the vowel e is almost always dropped in the second 
and third pers. sing. pres. cf verbs of the ancient conjuga- 
tion, in which the vowel is short, and the final consonant any 
other but an augmented liquid (§ 29) ; e. g. in fpridb|r, fpricfrt, 
frittft fatlt. In gilt, fdutt, trttt, fctrfr, fkfrfi, ft#t, flidbfl, fltcfjt, 
fcrat, £>alt, rati), from #elten, fdbelten, treteti, 6erften, fedbten, fTcdb= 

ten, &c. not only e but the final t is lost in the t of the termi- 
nation. The verb ttxrben has second and third pers. sing, 
pres. mt]i and ttHtb. 

In those derivative verbs which have the termination eln 
(eten) or etn (et'=en) in the infinitive, the vowel e of the termi- 
nation of derivation (el, er) is dropped in the first pers. sing, 
pres. ; e.g. id) ^anb4=e ? I act; id) watib4=e, I walk ; id) roanb-'^e, 
I wander : whilst the vowel e of the termination of inflection 
is dropped in all other forms ; e. g. (jcmb^t, ^anb=el-t=en, 

gtfycm&zht, l;anb^el=nb, £>aiib=ekt, wcrnhtM, wan&txMfk, q^ 
tvanb^eM, wanfcer^tb. 

Ancient form of Conjugation. 

§ 81. 

The ancient form of conjugation admits of many varieties, 
depending on the difference of the radical vowel, and of its 
changes in the formation of the imperfect tense and past par- 
ticiple. All verbs of this form, however, may be classed into 
three conjugations. The first comprehends the verbs having 
the radical vowel i, as fttlben, as well as those in which this 
vowel has been changed for its secondary vowel e (a or o) ; 
e. g. lefen, Brecfjen, racben, lofdben ; the original forms of which 
were tifan, 6rifan, &c. (§ 23). The radical vowel (i, e, a, b) is 


ETYMOLOGY. 77 

changed in the imperfect tense into a, which however in 
many verbs has passed into its secondary vowel ; and in the 
past participle into u, which in many verbs has passed into o, 
and in others into e ; e.g. fmben, fanb, ^efurtben ; fcbitf mtmen, 
fdbroamm, gefcb&ommen ; Bte^en, 6o$, flefcogeii; lefcn, la$, ge- 

lefcn. A great majority of radical verbs belong to this conju- 
gation. 

In verbs of the second conjugation the radical vowel is 
represented by the diphthong d, which originally was long i ; 
e. g. Betgettj tdten, Anglo-Saxon bitan, piban, Engl, to bite, to 
ride : the diphthong ei is in the imperfect tense, as well as in 
the past participle, changed into i. 

Verbs of the third conjugation have the radical vowels 
a, CM (0), or u, which in the imperfect are changed either into 
i (ie) or into it, but undergo no change at all in the past par- 
ticiple. 

Each of these three conjugations is subdivided according to 
the different changes of the radical vowel. 

Verbs, however, are arranged in the different conjugations, 
not so much according to the present form of their radical 
vowel, as according to the manner in which that vowel is 
changed. Thus we have said that the radical vowel of the 
first conjugation is t (e, Ci, 6) ; but that conjugation also con- 
tains the verbs Fomnten, fanftn, fatten, fdwauBen, fcjMxuBen, 
fdn'Oten, lucjen, tUt#en. Their radical vowel originally was t, 
as still appears from Goth, quintan, Engl, to sip, to lie, &c. 
The third conjugation in the same manner contains $ef)Ctt, 
ftd;en, £)et(?en, because these verbs make #trt# #e#art#en, jranb 
#ejranben, f)Ug $ef)eij?ert : their radical vowels originally were 
a; #an, ffan, (Engl, go, stand). 

% 82. 

In the first conjugation the changed vowel of the imperfect 
tense and past participle has the same quantity as the radical 

vowel: except in Bat, #eBeten, htad), erfcf)raF, ag, frag, fam, 
tttag, fag, fpradb? jracf), traf, X»er^ag, in which a short radical 
vowel has been changed into a long one ; and in flog ^efToffen, 

Senog #etioiTen, Fvocfc ^cfrodben, rod) ^evocben, foff sefoffen, fcfcog 
#efd;offen, fd;tog ^efdMofTen, fott #efottert, fyrog gefprojlert, t?ev= 


78 ETYMOLOGY. 

fcrog V evbfOflcn, and genOttlttKtt, in which a long radical vowel 
has been exchanged for a short one. 

In those verbs of the first conjugation which have adopted 
a secondary e (a, b) for their radical vowel, the primary vowel 
i has been retained in the second and third pers. sing. pres. 
indie, and in the singular of the imperative mood, the termi- 
nation of which (e) is dropped in these verbs; e.g. tcf) 6vcdE>C, 
bit 6rid)j?, it Bndbt, h\id) ; id) n?erfc, bit nutffr, er tt>hft, nurf ; id) 
lefe, bu liefejl, er lieft, lie£. The verbs genefen, fcewecjen, $al>- 
ren, £e6en 3 welfen, pfTegen, fdberen, fdwaren, and fcfwbren, are 
however exceptions to this rule ; e. g. ic() fcewe^e, bit 6ett?e#ef?, 
cr 6ett)e^ct, 6en>e$e. 

In ancient German most verbs of this conjugation adopted 
in the plural of the imperfect the changed vowel of the past 
participle ; e.g. id) JKlfc id) fcolfi Wtr l)ulfcn, fle&ulftti; t# gelte, 
tc|) #Ctlt, tt>ir molten, gC^ottett. The present conditional was in 
these verbs formed from the plural, and not from the singular, 
of the imperfect; which has given rise to the conditional forms 

id) fcltife fUtr&c, wbitrBe, ttmvBe, nmvbe, tiutrfe, and id) 6e#bmie, 
fcefbl;k, empfb&le, Bbvjie, #blte, fcefbnne, gevbmte, fcfjblte, fpbmie, 
jlb^le, which have remained in use ; as also to the forms ge= 
tt)bnne, fdbwbmme, {ni6e, fltinbe, which are still employed along 
with £jen?amie, fdfwatmtte, l;b6e, jiatibe. 

The first conjugation contains the following verbs : — 

First subdivision, 
i a u 

fin#en fans ^efungen. 

Btllben, to bind. fdbwinben, to disappear. 

bitt#en, to bargain. fefctvimjen, to swing, 

fcvinqen, to press. ftngen, to sing. 

ftnbcn, to find. ftnfen, to sink, 

^elin^en, to succeed. fprtn#en, to spring, 

fltnqen, to sound. fltnfen, to stink, 

rtnqcn, to wring, to struggle, trillf.n, to drink. 

fdMnbcn, to flay. nnnben, to wind, 

fdbltngen, to wind, to swallow. ^ttJUTvjCn, to force. 

Observation.— The imperfect tenses of btnyCn and fefcinben are but\$, 
fefcunb. 


ETYMOLOGY. 

Second subdivision. 

t, e (a) 

a o 

fpirmen fp 

ami • sefpontien 

fcrecfcen bradb $e&rocben. 

6efe|)kn, to command. 

fdbelten, to chide. 

fce^mnen, to begin. 

fdbttmtmien, to swim. 

6ev$en } to conceal. 

firnten, to think. 

6erften, to burst. 

fpimien, to spin. 

Bremen, to break. 

fpred;en, to speak. 

etttpfdjkn, to recommend. 

jreckn, to sting. 

Crfcbrecfen, to be frightened. 

fMjleii, to steal. 

#e6aren, to bring forth. 

jfrrfcen, to die. 

#elten, to be worth. 

treffen, to hit. 

#ettumien, to win. 

fCvbcvBen, to destroy. 

^elfen, to help. 

tt>er6en, to sue. 

fommen, to come. 

JVCVben, to become. 

«el;nten, to take. 

rcerfen, to throw. 

vinmn, to run. 



79 


Observation. ~- ©rfcftrect'ett is conjugated in the ancient form only in the 
intransitive signification of to be frighte?ied, but not in the transitive of to 
frighten. For the verb fOttlttien, the personal forms bu fommff, er fb'mmt, 
as well as bu fommft, er fommt, are employed. The form warb, for the 
imperfect of wevben, is rather antiquated: Wlivbe is more common. 



Third subdivision. 

i (ie, it) \ 
e (a, b, an) J 



#limmen 

cjlomm ae^lemmen. 

fedbten 

focfct ^cfodbten- 

fceflemmen, to straiten 

flietyen, to flee. 

kive^CH, to induce. 

fliegen, to flow. 

Bie^CH, to bend. 

fricren, to freeze. 

fcieten, to bid. 

$'a{)XM, to ferment. 

trefdben, to thrash. 

# erne j? en, to enjoy. 

fecfrten, to fight. 

#tegert, to pour. 

flecbten, to twist. 

glimmer?, to shine. 

|Tte#en, to fly. 

^c6en, to lift up. 


80 ETYMOLOGY. 

fiefen, to choose. fdbnau&en, to snort. 

flimmen, to climb. fdjrauBen, to screw. 

frtecfren, to creep. fc&toten, to bruise. 

iXl °!fu \<° be extinguished. g~' t0 fest ^ 

loerlofdbenJ fc&weilen, to swell. 

Iti^en, to tell lies. fdbttWtert, to swear. 

melFen, to milk. jteben, to boil. 

pfTe$en, to practise. fpwjjen, to sprout, 

quellen, to spring up. frteBcn, to disperse, 

racfcen, to revenge. triefen, to drop, 

riecfeen, to smell. triigen, to deceive, 

fattfcn, to drink. Vttbtii§i\h to grieve, 

fatten, to suck. w|)ef>len, to conceal, 

fdjallen, to sound. tjevlieren, to lose, 

fdberen, to shear. tfemurren, to confuse. 

fcfrieBen, to shove. w'a$m (etroa#en) to weigh, 

fdfriefen, to shoot. we&en, to weave, 

fdbltegen, to shut. tvkQtn, to weigh, 

fcfjmd^en, to melt. ^en, to pull. 

Observation i. — From btfkmmcn, ra#en, fcfcroten, and pertmrrett, the 
past participles only are now made in the ancient form. The imperfect of 
ttielfen is made in the modern form as well as in the ancient. In YCCbcn 
the ancient form of conjugation is rather antiquated, and occurs only in 
poetry. From the verb fce&ten, only the compound UnDCrfrofjlen (without 
disguise) now exists, ©fallen is conjugated in the ancient form only in 
the compounds erfcfraUetl to resound, and tferfcfraUCtt to cease to sound. 
25eif egcn is conjugated in the ancient form only in the signification of to 
induce, to engage, and pflegen only in the signification of to perform, to 
practise; e.g. etne£ 9(mte$ pflegen, to perform an office; but not in that 
of to be used and to take care. When fcfrtpenen implies to make swell, it is 
conjugated in the modern form. Of fctytticf^tt to melt, when its signifi- 
cation is transitive, the modern form occurs in the second and third pers. 
sing. pres. fc&me^eft, fc&melget. For the imperfect of fe&wbrett there are 
two forms, ftfjltwr and fcftttfOr. In jieben the final & is changed into $, so 
as to form jog, yCJO^ett : and in CVficfcn the final i> is changed into X, to 

form erfor, erforen. 

Observation 2. — The verbs of this subdivision, which have the long vowel 
t (ic), formerly took the diphthong eu in the second and third pers. sing. 
pres. and sing, imperat. : e.g. Beugfr, fretlQt, fretlg, beutfr, bent, fleugfr, 
fleu#t, fleug, which are now antiquated, and occur only in poetry ; e. g. 
m$ ba freuc&t 1Mb jTeucfct (Sch.), what there creeps and flies. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Fourth subdivision. 


81 


i» e 

a e 

Bitten 

Bat #eBeten. 

lefen 

ta3 fletefen. 

Bitten, to beg. 

lefen, to read. 

effen, to eat. 

lie^cn^ to lie. 

fteffen, to feed (intransit. 

) nteffen, to measure. 

#eBen, to give. 

feljen, to see. 

#enefen, to recover (from 

ill- fi^en, to sit. 

ness). 

treten, to tread. 

cjefcbel)en, to be done. 

t?ev$ effen, to forget. 


Observation. — The verb effen has the anomalous participle geyeffen. In 
fi^etl, faf , gefeffen, the final consonant of the verb is altered. 


%83. 

The Second conjugation is subdivided according as the 
diphthong ei is changed into short i or long i (ie). 

First subdivision. 

ei i (short) i (short) 

retten ritt geritten. 

BejTeigen, to apply oneself. reiten, to ride. 

Beigen, to bite. fcBleidben, to sneak. 

erBteidjen, to grow pale. fcbleifen, to grind, 

gleicben, to resemble. fd)U\$tn, to slit, 

gleiten, to glide. fc&meigen, to fling. 

#reifen, to take hold. fcfrneifren, to cut. 

feifen, to chide. fcfrreiten, to march. 

f neifen, to pinch. ffreicfcen, to strike, 

leiben, to suffer. frreiten, to dispute, 

pfeifen, to whistle. tveicfjen, to yield, 
veigen, to tear. 

Observation. — When fdfrfetfett implies to drag, it is conjugated in the 
modern form. The same applies to bletcften when it means to bleach, and 
to wetcfreit when it means to make soft. 

G 


82 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Second subdivision. 


et 
6lei8en 

6lei6en, to remain, 
betfjen, to prosper, 
letljen, to lend, 
meifcen, to shun. 

preifen, to praise. 

rei6en, to rub. 
fcfreiben, to part, 
fefceinen, to shine. 


te 
6lte6 


te 
$e6lie6en. 


fcftreiSen, to write, 
fc&reien, to cry. 
fcfwet#en, to be silent, 
fpeien, to spit. 
jtet#en, to ascend. 
treiSen, to push, to drive, 
wetfen, to show, 
^etljen, to accuse of. 


§84. 

The Third conjugation also is subdivided, according as the 
radical vowel is in the imperfect tense changed into ie or into 
U. In the past participle the radical vowel is not changed. 
In the second and third pers. sing. pres. indie, the vowel a is 
modified into a, into i>, and an into ail: except in laben, 
fdbaffen, fatten. 



First subdivision. 

a, att (o, it) 

ie a, an (c, u) 

fallen 

ftel #efallen. 

laufen 

lief gelaufen. 

fclafen, to blow. 

laffen, to let, to leave. 

6raten, to roast. 

laufen, to run. 

fallen, to fall. 

rattjen, to advise. 

fatten, to catch. 

vitfen, to call. 

#el?en, to go. 

fallen, to salt. 

baltcn, to hold. 

fdblafen, to sleep. 

liangen, to hang. 

fpalten, to split. 

fatten, to cut. 

jlogen, to push. 

imgen, to call. 



ETYMOLOGY. 83 


Second subdivision. 


a 

u a 

fcfrtagen 

fdblu^ gefcbta^cn- 

fcacfen, to bake. 

■fdbaffen, to create. 

fai)Xi\h to move. 

fdblagm, to beat. 

frctflen, to ask. 

jM;en, to stand. 

Qvabm, to dig. 

tracer?, to bear. 

laben, to load. 

nmc&fen, to grow. 

maUn, to grind. 

Wafc^CHj to wash. 


Observation 1. — (Befjert and flc^en ($81) have in the imperfect tense 
0tlt0, jtanb ; and for the participles, gegangen, geffanben. The imperfect 
of Ijauen is fcieb. From fatten, fallen, flatten, mafen, only the participles 
gefalten, gefa^en, gefpatten, gemalen, are now made in the ancient form. 
From fragett only the imperfect frtlg is in the ancient form, instead of 
which fvaftte is also employed. The verb fd&affen is conjugated in the 
ancient form only in the signification of to create, and not in that of to 
work. 

Observation 2.— Jrjeirat&en,to marry; frercttfjfcfrtagett, to deliberate; VtXt 
atllaffen, to occasion; and ttJtllfafjvett, to comply; being derivatives of 
£>etratf), 9?atfcfdbfag,-3(nla£, &c, are conjugated in the modern form. 


Modern form of Conjugation. 

§85. 

There is only one conjugation of the modern form which 
originally comprehends all derivative verbs, but has been 
adopted in modern German by many radical verbs also. All 
simple tenses and the participial forms of this conjugation are 
made by means of the terminations indicated in § 79, 80, 
without any change of radical sounds. 

The verb (ja6ett must be classed as belonging to this conju- 
gation. The anomaly in the conjugation of this verb is limited 
to the indicative and conditional moods, and consists merely 
in the contraction of the terminations with the verb ; e. g. in 
|>at, ^atte, from (ja6et, (jafcete ; and in the modification of the 
vowel in the conditional mood. Thus, 

g2 


84 



ETYMOLOGY. 


Indicative. 

Conditional. 

Present. 

Imperf. 

Present. 

Sing. l. ^a6e. 

l. Ijatte. 

Sing. l. l;atte. 

2. ^a(r. 

2. fcattejr. 

2. Ijdttejt 

3. l;at. 

3. fmtte. 

3. l;dtte. 

Plur. l. £a6en. 

l. fatten. 

Plur. l. fatten. 

2. ^a6et. 

2. battel. 

2. bdttet. 

3. f)a6en. 

3. fatten. 

3. fatten. 


The conjunctive and imperative, as well as the participial 
forms, are quite regular. 

Irregular Conjugation. 

§86. 
The verbs 6mi$en, to bring ; 6mwett, to burn ; bettFen, to 
think ; fermen, to know ; nemien, to name ; temtCtt, to run ; 
fetlbetl, to send ; Weilben, to turn ; have in the imperfect tense 
and past participle the termination appropriate to the modern 
form of conjugation, the radical vowel being at the same time 

changed into a; e.g. fcrermen, fctannte, ^efctarmt; fennen, farmte, 

gefarmt. The conditional mood of these verbs has the same 
vowel as the infinitive ; e. g. 6rermte, fenbete : Brin^etl and ben- 
fcn, however, have in the conditional the modified vowel of the 
imperfect tense, the final consonant being also altered into d); 

e.g. 6rm#en, fcvacfrte, Brdcfrte, gebmdbt; benfen, badbte, bdcfrte, 
^ebacfrt. 

The verb tfylM (t^U=en), to do, has imperfect \i)at, con- 
ditional ttydte, and past participle #et|>an. The verb gbrmen 
is conjugated in a regular way, according to the modern form 
of conjugation ; only the irregular forms $0tmte for the imper- 
fect, and $e$omit for the past participle, are also employed. 

The auxiliary verbs btufen, fbrmen, mbgert, nwffhl, fatten, 
If ottcn (§ 70), and the verb flpiffen, to know, form their present 
tense by a change of vowel, and without any termination in 
the first and third pers. sing. ; barf, farm, mag, mu$, fall, Will, 
and ttxif?. These forms are originally imperfect tenses, made 
according to the ancient form of conjugation, which, like the 
Latin odi and memini, have assumed the signification of the 


ETYMOLOGY. 


85 


present. New forms have accordingly been made for the im- 
perfect tenses, which, as well as the past participle, have the 
terminations of the modern form with a change of the radical 
vowel. In the conditional mood the vowel of the imperfect is 
changed, except in Wollen and fbtten. The conjunctive mood 
is regularly formed from the infinitive. The conjugation of 
these verbs, accordingly, is as follows : — 
Infinitive. Indicative. Conjunct. Condit. Past Part. 


Indicative. 
A 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


biirfen 

1 
barf 

2 

barffr 

3 

barf 

burfte 

burfe 

biirfte 

geburft. 

fo'nnen 

fann 

fannjt 

fann 

fonnte 

fb'nne 

fonnte 

gefonnt. 

mogen 

mag 

magir 

mag 

mo dm 

moge 

mb'dbte 

gemccltt. 

mu|]en 

mu£ 

muft 

muf? 

mufte 

miiiTe 

mu'£te 

gemufjt. 

fori en 

foir 

fotrff 

forr 

fotfte 

fode 

foltte 

gefcfft. 

rooUen 

will 

wtHir 

nnir 

roollte 

wolk 

trollte 

geworrt. 

ttu|)en 

rcetf? 

treifn 

rcei£ 

YCU$U 

wttfe 

wiijjte 

gettwft. 


§87. 
The conjugation of the verb fem # , to be, is in German, as 
in other languages, compounded of different verbs, and there- 
fore irregular. The following are the forms of the present 
tense in the indicative, conjunctive, and imperative moods ; — 


Indicative. 

Conjunctive. 

Imperative. 

Particip ial forms. 

S. PI. 
i. bin finb 

2. biff feib 

3. ijr finb 

S. PL 

fei feien 
feiejr feiet 
fei feien 

S. PL 
fei feib 

Inf. fein Oefen). 
Pres.Part. feicnb (tvtftnb). 
Past Part, gewefen. 


The infinitive of the verb nxfevi occurs only as a substan- 
tive (§ 42) signifying a being; its present participle Wefenb is 
only employed in the compounds aWKfenb, present, and afc 
tvefenb, absent. The pres. part, feierib also is scarcely ever 
used. 

The Augment of Past Participles, 

§88. 
The past participles commonly have the augment $e (§ 29); 
e. g. #c=fp?OCfjen, ^e-lofct. When, however, in verbs of two or 

* It is by some spelt feijru 


86* ETYMOLOGY. 

more syllables, the first syllable is unaccented, or has the sub- 
ordinate accent, eurythmy does not permit them to take an 
augment (§ 17). The following verbs, therefore, do not admit 
of the augment in the formation of the past participle : — 

1.) Verbs of foreign origin which have the termination ircn 
(§ 19) ; e. g. fhituren, to study; re^iren, to rule; marfdnten, to 
march. The same applies to t;aujtren, to hawk goods (from 

2.) All verbs which have already the augment; e.g. $efallen, 
$eruej?en ? $et)bven ; — or are compounds with prefixes ; e. g. 6es 
fudjei?, to visit; etlan^en, to obtain; tfevlieren, to loose; evtt= 
Cjeljm, to escape ; ^erjtbfen, to destroy ; tpintev^en, to deceive; 

iifcerferjen, to translate ; untevne&men, to undertake ; tmarmerr, 

to embrace; ttnberjMjen, to resist; ttHebevt5ot)len, to repeat; 
ttltgfallen, to displease; tfollenben, to achieve (§59). 

In separable compound verbs (§59) the augment is placed 
between the separable component and the verb ; e. g. an=$e= 
fallen, attacked ; a&;#e=fcfjrte6en, copied; ^u^fdjlojfen, locked 
up. This rule, however, must not be applied to verbs made 
from compound substantives or adjectives ; as, antif Often (from 
2tnttt>0Vt), to answer; ar#tt>0&wn (from tytQWOtyn), to suspect; 
fvoljtocfen, to exult; fut^ftiufen, to breakfast; Ijanblmfcen, to 

manage; IteBfofen, to caress; lieBau$eln, to ogle; mi§6tllt,gen, 
to disapprove ; nitpraucften, to abuse ; ttttgl;etmtl;en, to marry 

below one's rank; nmttmtagen, to suppose; quacffalfcew, to 

quack; ratl)fc|)la£en, to deliberate; vedbtfetli^en, to justify; 
UVt^eilen, to judge; wallfa^tten, to go a pilgrimage; U>CttCt= 
fern, to rival; n?ettevlettcf)ten, to lighten; ttJetgfa^en, to pro- 
phecy ; and some others ; in the participles of which the aug- 
ment is placed before the whole compound ; e. g. #eantft>OVtet, 
#eai#tt*bJNlt. The participles of offenBaven, to reveal, and wHU 
fasten, to comply, admit of no augment, because the com- 
ponents offer! and Will have the subordinate accent. 

The augmented participles of the auxiliary verbs bittfen, 

fonnen, mb$en, tmifTen, follen, pollen, laffen, are only employed 

when they are not accompanied by another verb, i. e. when the 
verb connected with the auxiliary verb is omitted ; e. g. id) t)a6e 

cjewollt, after id) l;abe nicfrt $efonnt, I have been willing, but I 
have not been able (to do a thing). When, on the other hand, 


ETYMOLOGY. 87 

the infinitive of the other verb is expressed, the augment is 
omitted, and the participle assumes the form of the infinitive 

(burfen, fbnnen, mb#en, &c); e.g. id) fcaBe wit iljm fprecben 
wollen, a6et id) Ijabe ityn ntcftt fmben fbnnen, I have wished 

to speak with him, but I have not been able to find him ; et 
£at ftdfj ^UVUCt^ie^en mil (fen, he has been obliged to retire; 
et fyat tltdbt 6(ct6cn b tit fen, he has not been permitted to stay. 
In the same way the participles of the verbs l)ti§t\1, to order ; 
^Clfen, to help ; fydxin, to hear ; fefmt, to see ; leljven, to teach ; 
lewen, to learn ; macben, to make ; connected with the infini- 
tive of another verb (§ 75), assume the form of an infinitive; 
e.g. itw i)at bid) $eljen |) e i g C n ? who ordered thee to part? 
id) |>a6e ii)m axbzitm I) el fen, I have assisted him to work; id) 
j?a6e i^tt jm$en I) bt en, I have heard him singing; et bat mid) 
tan^en I el) ten, he has taught me dancing # . 

Observation.— Verbs compounded with the prefix rm£, being of the de- 
scription of inseparable compound verbs, cannot take an augment in the 
participle either before or after ttltfj; and forms like mt^ebetltet, mt^ 
gegrtffen, are rather incorrect. The augment occurs however in mt£? 
gefc^flffen and tnif?3ebttbet, which therefore must be considered as com- 
pounds of the adverb tm§ with the participles used adjectively, and not 
as the participles of mtf fefcaffen, &c. 

Compound Tenses. 

§ 89. 
The compound past tenses are, as in English, made by com- 
pounding the past participle with one of the auxiliary verbs, 
fyafcen or fein (§ 70). Thus the present tense of the auxiliary 
verbs forms the perfect, and the imperfect forms the pluperfect 

tense of the verb; e.g. id) l)abt QiXibit, id) bin #efontmen; and 

id) |?atte $etebet, id) Wax #efommen. The past infinitive is com- 
pounded of the same participle and the infinitive of the auxi- 
liary verb ; e. g. ^etebet (ja&en, $efommen fein. 

The future tenses are made by compounding the present 
tense of the auxiliary verb UKtbett with the infinitive of the 
verb, viz. with the present infinitive for the first future, and 




* 3d& \)<\U mid) nti uief genntynen (em en. Sch. 
Sf)t fyaH bie 5ftnbe (FtiofmibS fennctt (erneti. Sch. 
3l)r ^n&t fie u titer eucfy nufiudd>feti fef)ti. Sch. 


88 ETYMOLOGY. 

with the past infinitive for the second future ; e. g. id) nJerbe 

veberi, id) rcerbe fomrnen ; and id) wxbz cjevebet t;a6en, id) wevbe 
cjeforomen fein. 

In compound tenses the participial forms are not inflected. 

When physical or moral necessity or possibility of an action 
asserted is expressed by one of the auxiliary verbs biirfen, foils 
lien* ttl6#€H, nittflen, &c. (§ 70), the tenses made by the auxiliary 
verbs of mood stand with the present infinitive of the other 
verbs; e.g. er l)at \\id)t tauten Fbmt en, he has not been able 
to dance; er IjCtt llidbt fyvecfjen biirfen, he has not been per- 
mitted to speak; ev i)'dtti tail^n fbmiCH, he would have been 
able to dance; er ifdiU tailgcn mil (fen, he would have been 
obliged to dance *. In this respect the German differs from 
the English idiom, in which in such cases the auxiliary verb 
frequently stands in the imperfect, whilst the other verb is in 
the past participle ; e. g. he might have danced (as it were, 
posset saltavisse), instead of CV l)dtti tCtll£C!1 FoillKll {poiuisset 
saltare) ; you could have prevented this (posses impedivisse), in- 
stead of fie fatten ba$ r-eiijinbevn foimeti ; you ought to have pre- 
vented him [deberes impedivisse\ instead of \k fatten bd$ V ev- 
[)tllbem fcllcil (debuisses impedire). In German, the present 
and imperfect tenses of the auxiliary verbs of mood do not 
stand with the past participles of other verbs, except when a 
logical possibility or necessity of the assertion (probability or 
conjecture) is expressed (§ 70) ; e. g. cr fbiinte or mbcitfe mid) 
V evvatl;en fyahiXI, it might be that he had betrayed me ; weim 
ev foltte mid) vmattym l)abt\h if he could have betrayed me. 

§ 90. 

The passive voice is compounded of the past participle and 
the auxiliary verb Jvcrbcn, and its conjugation is effected purely 
by conjugating the auxiliary verb through all its tenses, simple 
and compound, and through all moods. In the imperfect tense 
the form ttuube (not Warb, § 82) is always employed ; and in 
the perfect and pluperfect tenses the participle WOi'ben is with- 
out augment (§ 88); e.g. id) nxvbe cjelo&t, ev ttmvbe ^eloBt, kl) 


* %Jtan Ijatte biefen SBrtfctngton unb 3jf()frurn idr in ^Serfon ucrflclti 
~nre ©djreifeet tin gegeniifrcr fhllcn foil en. Sch. 


ETYMOLOGY. 89 

6iii #elo6t wovbcn, tdb ware gdobt worben, id) wevbe gelobt 
uxvben. 

§ 91. 
The perfect and pluperfect tenses of all transitive and re- 
flexive verbs (§ 65) are made by means of the auxiliary verb 
(ja6cn; but of those intransitive verbs which have not the re- 
flexive form, many assume in these tenses the auxiliary verb 
fctttj whilst others take fyaftm. The signification of the verb 
generally determines which of them is employed. The follow- 
ing always assume fctn. 

1.) Those intransitive verbs which imply a change and tran- 
sition from one state into another ; e. g. — 

kvjlcn, to burst. fallen, to heal. 

Bremen, to break. reifen, to ripen. 

betljen, to prosper. febme^en, to melt. 

fatlkn, to putrefy. fdfwavcn, to fester. 

fvtcve.1, to freeze. fcbttJCltcn, to swell. 

#dingen, to succeed. fdbivillben, to disappear. 

Cjenefen, to recover. fprtegen, to sprout. 

v qevatljen, to come, to fall. j?er6en, to die. 

getimien, to coagulate. M?acbfcit, to grow. 

( qefd)el)en, to happen. werben, to become. 

2.) Those which imply motion from one place to another; 


btui^en, to press. 

fommen, to come. 

Cilcn? to hasten. 

fvtecjjen, to creep. 

fatjren, to move. 

lanben, to land. 

fallen, to fall. 

laufen, to run. 

flie^en, to fly. 

quellen, to spring (water) 

jTieljen, to flee. 

reifen, to travel. 

fliegen, to flow. 

retteri, to ride. 

gel)en, to go. 

renwn, to run. 

gelan^en, to arrive. 

rtrmen, to flow. 

$letten, to slide. 

viicfen, to move. 

l)hiFen, to halt. 

fdbetben, to part. 

ja^en, to run with haste. 

fefnegen, to shoot. 

fkttern, to climb. 

febiffen, to sail. 

flmtmen, to climb. 

\d)U\d)QU, to sneak. 


90 ETYMOLOGY. 

fdblupfen, to slip. jrreicfcen, to move swiftly, 

fcbreiten, to stride. jftir^en, to tumble, 

fdbnrimnten, to swim. treiBen, to drive. 

fe#etn, to sail. treten, to step, 

fmfen, to sink. timber ivten, to rove about. 

fpvin#en, to leap. wanbevn, to wander. 

fret#en, to rise. ttMten, to wade, 

ffogen, to push. roeidben, to yield. 

ffraucfjelrb to stumble. gte^en, to move, to pass. 

3.) The verb fein, to be. In German, as in Italian, the 
perfect and pluperfect tenses of fein are formed by means of 
the same verb ; e. g. id) Bin geroefctt, id) Wat $ett>efen. 

Radical and derivative verbs, which by themselves require 
the auxiliary IjaBen, assume the auxiliary fein, whenever in 
consequence of their being compounded with prefixes (e. g. CV, 
W, CHt ; and separable adverbs, e. g. an, CM$, CM$, in (em), 
au$), they come to express a transition from one state or con- 
dition into another, or a motion from one place to another ; 
e. g. efffaimen, to be astonished ; erfcfceinen, to make one's 
appearance; ertrinfen, to be drowned; uerfcfr alien, to cease 
sounding; evwacben and aufwac&en, to awake; entfdblafen and 
etnfcWafen, to fall asleep; wbunjien, to evaporate; x>er(}un= 
gent, to starve with hunger; t>erBvennen and aufBtennen, to 

be consumed by fire ; t>et6lufjen, to decay ; aufBU$en, to 
blossom, &c. The verbs, on the other hand, eilen, fTiefen, 
tJinfen, Kqen, flettern, friedben, lanben, laufen, quellen, tetfen, 
reiten, rinnen, fe^eln, fcfnffen, fdbnnmmen, fpvin^en, frogen, n?an= 

bern, take the auxiliary verb ^aBen, when they imply not a 
motion from one place to another, but merely a particular 
kind of motion ; e. g. in er ^at t)iel #eretfet, he has travelled 
very much ; er ^at lftn#e $etjtnft, he has been limping a long 
while ; er £>at btefen DJ?or#en #eritten, he has taken a ride this 
morning ; nur f^aBen cine #an^e ©tunbe ^efefrwontmen, we swam 
a whole hour; er 1) ax au3 geflettert, aui#efprun$en, au^eritten, 

att^eteifet, he has done climbing, leaping, riding, travelling. 
(§ 63. Obs. 3.) 

The following intransitive verbs require the auxiliary verb 
foaBen :— 


ETYMOLOGY. 91 

1.) Those which govern a case or a preposition ; e. g. euiCttt 
bienen, #c^orcf)en, to serve, to obey one; einem #efaUen, to 
please one; tint? @ad()e #ebenfen, XiergefTetl, to remember, to 
forget something ; ufcer mien fpottcn, to mock one. However, 

etnent Be^nen, folgen, wetdben, to meet, to follow, to yield to 

one, assume fettt. 

2.) Those which express the production of sounds and of 
other impressions upon the external senses; e.g. adf^Ctt, to 
groan ; fcellen, to bark ; Bmllen, to bellow ; fcraufen, to roar ; 
tuften, to scent; fllatl^tt, to shine; ^lu^en, to glow; fling Wj 
tbnen, tauten, fdfjallen, to sound ; rted^en, to smell ; fcjntiedf en, 

to taste ; fc&reien, to cry ; fcfmnen, to shine ; feufjjen, to sigh ; 
f?mf en, to stink ; KJCitten, to weep, &c. 

3.) Those which imply a permanent state or condition ; e. g. 
6eBen, to tremble ; Bitten, to flourish; bluten, to bleed ; bavfcen, 
to starve; baWXn, to last; fel)len, to want; #al}Ven, to fer- 
ment; tyartflen, to hang; uten, to err; lefcen, to live ; letben, to 
suffer ; lie#en, to lie ; Utljen, to rest ; fi$en, to sit ; fcf)Iafen, to 
sleep; fc&Wdgen, to be silent; jMjen, to stand; jtveiten, to 
struggle; ttmcfren, to wake; ttJCilcn, to delay; Wotjnen, to 
dwell, &c. However, 6let6en, to stay, to remain, requires the 
auxiliary verb fein. 

4.) The impersonal verbs ; e. g. e$ vegnet, it rains ; e$ fcfnteiet, 
it snows ; e$ 6li$t, it lightens, &c. 

5.) All auxiliary verbs of mood (§ 70). 

Observation. — There are some verbs which assume fetn in one significa- 
tion, and fcafcen in another; e. g. id) bin fortgefaferen, I went off; and icjj 
fjabe fortgefa&ven ju tefen, I have continued reading; ber 25aum ifr au^ 
gefcftfagen, the tree has pushed forth leaves ; bte (SadtK iff gut ait$$efr&fa« 
gen, the business has turned out well ; and ba$ tykxb fjat auggefdjfagen, 
the horse has kicked; i$ 6tn ^U tfjrtt gejrOfeil, I joined him; id) bin auf 

ifjn geftof?en, I met him ; and id) Iw&e an einen ©tetn ge|to£en, I have hit 

against a stone; t# £a6e gefrOren, I have been cold; and ba5 SBaffer if? 
gefroren, the water is frozen ; id) bin gejdgt, I have run fast; and id) fcafce 
gejagt, I have hunted. 

§ 92. 

The whole of the conjugation of verbs is explained by the 
following specimen of the ancient and modern forms of con- 
jugation, including the passive voice. 


92 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Ancient form of Conjugation. 


Indicative. 


Sing, id) fprmgc, I spring 

bu fprtngeJJ Opting) 
er (fie, e?) fpringet (fpringt) 
Plur. tftr fprtngen 

ifrr fpvtnget (fprinyt) 
fie fpringen. 


Conjunctive. 
Present Tense. 

id) fprtnge 
bu fprinyeft 
er fpringe 
if ir fpringen 
ifcr fprin^et 
fie fpringen. 


Sing. 


Plur, 


id) fprang 

bu fprangeir (fprangf?) 

er fprana, 

tftr fprangen 

i&r fpranyet 

fu fprangen. 


Imperfect Tense. 


S. id) bin 
bu biff 

er ift 
P. if tr finb 
ifjr feib 
fie finb 


>gefpruttyen. 


Perfect Tense 
id) fet 

bufeieff(feift) 
er fet 
if ir feten 
ifjf feiet 
fu feten 


Conditional. 

id) fpriinge 
bu fpruncjeft 
er fpriinge 
if ir fpriingen 
i(;r fpriin.get 
fie fprungen. 


>gefprungen. 


tdp ware 
bu tfareft 
er tf are 
if tr tf aren 
ifrr if aret 
fie tf aren 


S. id) tf ar ' 
bu tfarf? 
er if ar 

P. tftr ifaren 
t&r if aret 
fie ifaren 

S. id) if erbe 

bu if irf? 

er if irb 
P. if tr if erben 

ifjr if erbet 

fie if erben 


Pluperfect Tense. 


J>ycfprunyen. 


^fpringen. 


First Future Tense. 

id) if erbe 
bu if erbetf 
er tf erbe 
tftr if erben 
t(jr if erbet 
fie if erben 


^fpringen. 


id) if iirbe 
bu tf iirbeft 
er if iirbe 
if tr if Urben 
ifrr ifUrbet 
fie if urben 


>s 


Second Future Tense. 


S. id) tf erbe 
bu tf irft 
er tf irb 

P. tf ir nuM'ben 
i&r if erbet 
fie if erben 


gefprungen 
fetn. 


id) tf erbe "| 
bu tf erbeff 
er tf erbe 
tf ir if erben 
ibr iferbet 
tie tf erben 


gefprungen 
fetn. 


id) ifiirbe 
bu ifitrbej? 
er tfiirbe 
if ir tf tirben 
i&r tfurbet 
tie tf urben 




ETYMOLOGY. 

Imperative. 

Infinitive. 

Sing, fprrnge, 

Pres. fpringen. 

PJur. fpringet. 

Perf. gefprungen fein. 

Participles. 

Supine. 

Pres. fpringenb. 

Pres. ^u fpringen. 

Perf, gefprungen. 

Perf. gefprungen ju ft'in. 

Mode? 

-nform of Conjugation. 

Indicative. 

Conjunctive. Conditional. 


Present Tense. 

S. id; fore 

i# fore id) fcbrte 

bu forej? (fcbrfr) 

bu fbretf bu fbrtej? 

er (fie, e$) fo'ret (fort) 

er fore er forte 

P. n?ir fo'ren 

wix fo'ren roir fbrten 

i(jr fo'ret (fort) 

ifcr fo'ret i&r fbrtet 

fie fbren. 

fie fo'ren. fie fbrten. 


Imperfect Tense. 

S. i# forte 


bu fdrtefr 


er forte 


P. w\x fbrten 


\bx fbrtet 


fie fo'rtert. 



Perfect Tense. 

S. \ti) babe ' 


i# (wbe 

iff fja'tte 

bu i>a|t 


bu babe\v 

bu batteft 

er (Sat 


er babe 

, ■ er fca'tte 

P. roir baken 

!>gefbrt. 

wiv baben 

^crt. TO ir fatten 

u)r ^abet 


if>r babet 

ifrr fmttet 

fie fcaben 


fie frafren 

fie fatten 


Pluperfect Tense. 

S. tcf> &atte " 



bu fcattejr 



er fcatte 
P. wir fatten 

>gefbrt. 


u)r feattet 



fie fatten, j 




First Future Tense. 

S. irt) wevbe " 

id) werbe " 

id) wiirbe 

bu wirfr 


bu rcerbetf 

bu ttwrbefr 

er wtrb 


er werbe 

.. er wiirbe 

P. roirwerben 

> fo'ren. 

wir werben 

>Doren. W ir wUrben 

i&r werbet 


i&r rcerbet 

i&r rrUrbet 

fie roerben 


fie \v erben 

fie wiirben 


93 


94 


ETYMOLOGY 




Indicative. 

Conjunctive. 

Conditional 


- 

Second Future Tense. 



S. id) trerbe " 


id) roerbe " 


id) w'uxbe " 


bu w'vcft 


bu werbejt 


bu wurbeft 

3 

er iturb 

^a&en. 

er rcerbe [ 
wix werben / 

j5ef)brt 

er rotirbe 

<3 

P. tt>tr rcerbfn 

fyaben. 

wix witrben 

tfjr roerbet 


ifyx wexbet 


tfcr triirbet 


fie werben d 

fie werben 


fie rourben 

«33 

Imperative. 

Infinitive. 


Sing, fcb're, 

Pres. 

!>bren. 


Plur. jjoret. 

Perf. 

ge&brt fcaben. 


Participles. 


Supine. 


Pres. fcbrenb. 

Pres. 

^u fccren. 


Perf. #e&b'rt. 

Perf. 

Passive Voice. 

gefcbrt $u ^abert. 


Indicative. 

Conjunctive. 
Present Tense. 

Conditional 

r^ 

S. td& roerbe " 


tdfi roerbe " 


id) wiirbe n 


bu wirf? 


bu trerbefr 


bu rourbejt 


er nurb 


er roerbe { 


er roiirbe 

*-> 

P.wirroerben p e & "- 

wix wexben ( 

> ge&'drt. 

wix rcurben 


ifyv wevbet 


tyx wexbet 


tf>r uriirbet 

C» 

fie werben - 


fie wexben 


fie nuirben j 



Imperfect Tense. 



S. id) ttmrbe " 





bu rourbef? 





er rourbe 





Rtturrcurben f^ort. 




ttjr wurbet 
fie nutrben J 








Perfect Tense. 



S. id) 6in 


id) fet 

" 

id) w'axe 

3 

bu 6if! 


bufetefl(fetft) 


bu rcareff 

JO 

er if? 

l ge&'drt 
roorben. 

er fet 

yefibrt erroare 
^wovben. wix waxen 

*>* 

P. nur finb 

wix feten 

tfjr fetb 


t&r fetet 


tfcr wdvet 


fie finb 


fie feten 

„ 

fie waxen 

«> 


Pluperfect Tense. 



S. id) wax 





bu wax\t 





evwav 

> ge^drt 
^worben. 




P. wix waven 




i&r roaret 





fie rcaren 











ETYMOLOGY. 



95 

Indicative. 

Conjunctive. 
First Future Tense. 

Conditional. 

S. Ul) roerbe ~| 

td& werbe " 


icf> roiirbe " 

g; 

bu n?irt? 1 

bu werbetf 


bu rourbejt 

JO 

erwivb Ifle&b'vt 
P. wirwerben ^wetbtn. 

er werbe 

werben. 

er nriirbe 


ttur rcevben 

wit wiirben C Z 

ifyv wetbet 


i&r roerbet 


ifjr roitrbet j : Ji 
fie wiirben j «> 

fie roerben L 


fie within j 



Second Future Tense. 


S. t# werbe " 


i# rcerbe " 

_. 

id& roiirbe ") tt 

bu tt?ivfT 


bu werbeff 

JO 

bu wiirbejt 1 -g 

er wirb 

i ge&ort 
worben ft 

er roerbe 


er wiirbe I jj e 

P. roir roerben 

in. wtr werben 

nrir roiirben f £^± 

u)r werbet 


i&r roerbet 


ifjr wiirbet J £> 

fie werben 


fie roerben 

c» 

fie nmrben j « 

Imperative. 

Infinitive. 

Sing, werbe gefjdvt, Pres. gefjdvt werben. 

Plur. roerbet ge&'ort. Perf. ge^ib'rt worben fein. 

Parft'czp/es. 

Supine. 

Perf. geffort. 

Pres. gefib'rt gu werben. 

Fut. 

gu fcbrenb. 

Perf. 

ge&ort worben $u fein, 



Chapter II. — Of Substantives. 
Gender of Substantives. 

§93. 
Substantives are names of persons or names of things ; or, 
properly speaking, names of existences, either animate or 
inanimate. The distinction of animate beings, according to 
their natural sex, as males and females, is commonly expressed 
by the masculine andfeminine genders. Inanimate beings having 
no natural sex, their names belong neither to the masculine nor 
to the feminine gender, and they are said to be neuter (fadj)UC|))j 
or of the neuter gender. In German, however, as in the ancient 


96 ETYMOLOGY. 

languages., a great many names of inanimate things have adopt- 
ed the masculine or feminine gender ; e. g. bev SBaimt, the tree, 
bk SSlwtnt : and on the other hand, many names of animate 
beings, in which the natural sex is not attended to, are classed 
in the neuter gender ; e. g. bd$ j?at&, the calf; bd$ ©C&Wem, 
the pig ; ba$ Kinb 9 the child. 

Upon the whole, therefore, the gender of German substan- 
tives cannot be ascertained by their signification. It more 
properly depends upon the forms of the substantive (ancient, 
middle, &c. § 33 — 48), which, however, for the most part are 
influenced by the notions (of persons or of things, abstract or 
concrete, &c. ^ 6) which they express *. 

The gender is thus very easily discovered by means of the 
form in the case of secondary derivatives ; but in primary 
derivatives this is more difficult. Those primary derivatives 
which express the names of animated beings, with an implied 
distinction of their natural sex, are for the most part of the 
description of adjective-substantives (§ 35); e.g. .jjjett, master; 
^na6e, boy; %VCm, woman. All other primary derivatives 
are, with some exceptions, either masculine, if they belong to 
the ancient form, — e. g. ber Siefc, the thief; ber .<3tUlb, the 
dog ; bet 2>itnb, the alliance ; bet $Uig, the river ; — or femi- 
nine, if they belong to the middle form ; e. g. bk Wldftb, the 
maid; bk Xatt6e, the pigeon; bi: ©pradfK, the language; bk 
glucfjt, the flight. 

Gender of Primary Derivatives. 
§ 94. 

Primary substantives of the ancient form (§ 33), e. g. ^attttt, 
tree; %lu$ 9 river; Cauf, course; and their compounds with 
prefixes and adverbs, e. g. 2?evbruf, disgust ; Onfall, attack ; 
2?0V$U#, preference, — are masculine ; except the following, 
which are neuter : 

1.) Those which have the augment $e; e. g. bd$ ®e6ot, the 
command ; ba$ (Beftanb, the garment. Of this description 
only the following are masculine : @e6taac(), use ; ©ebanfe, 

* ©rnmmnttf. § 108. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


97 


thought; ©etUlj?, enjoyment; ©etucfj, smell; @efan#, song; 

©efcfcmatf, taste ; ©ejlanf , stink ; ©enmin, gain. 


2.) The substantives,- 


9la$, carrion. 
$tttlt, office. 
2fotli& face. 
2fo#e, eye. 
^ab ? bath. 
3?e#ef)r, desire. 
£?eil, hatched, 
©em, leg. 
^Beflecf, a case. 
S?ett, bed. 
2?ier, beer. 
©Kb, image. 
SMatt, leaf. 
Sfei, lead. 
8fot, blood. 
2?00t, boat. 
S?Vett, board. 
$rob, bread. 
23uc{>, book. 
Sac&, roof. 
®itt£, thing, 
^orf, village. 

(?cf (2?ierecf), edge, 

corner. 
©, egg. 
(£i$, ice. 
(?nbe, end. 
(£r6e, inheritance, 
gig, ore. 
$ad[), shelf. 
5a f?, cask. 
$<U>, field, 
gell, skin. 
Sett, fat. 
getter, fire. 


gleifcb, flesh. 

gtofj, float. 

©am, yarn. 

©eib, money. 

©Ia3, glass. 

@lieb, limb. 

©olb, gold. 

©m6, grave. 

©raJ, grass. 

.gaav, hair. 

«@ar^, resin. 

•0att3, house. 

,ljeer, army. 

.geil, hail. 
«geft, shaft, 
.gentb, shirt. 
.£>efy heart. 
igeu, hay. 
.girn, brain. 
£>o(j, wood. 
.0OW, horn. 
•gttlM, hen. 
3a&r, year. 
3odb, yoke. 
J?al6, calf. 
$mb, child. 
j?inn, chin. 
RUib 9 clothing. 
j?nie, knee. 
j?om, corn. 
j?rattt, herb, 
pretty cross. 

£amm, lamb. 
Canb, land. 
£au6, leaf. 


£e£)n, feudal grant. 
£etb, sorrow. 
QicbU lignt. 
£teb, song. 
£06, praise. 
£odb, hole. 
£oo£, lot. 
£ot^, plumb-line. 
3)?aj)l ? meal. 
Wlai, time. 
2Mfr malt. 
3)?aVF, marrow. 
3)?a£, measure. 
3)?attl, mouth. 

2D?eer, sea. 

2J?eW, meal. 

2)?evf ($u#erowtf), 

aim. 
3J?00£, moss. 
3)?tt£, marmalade. 
9?eft nest. 
9?e$, net. 
D&fJ, fruit. 
D^t, ear. 

Del, oil. 
$aor, pair. 
$ecf>, pitch. 
$fanb, pledge, 
^ferb, horse. 
$fttttb, pound. 
0?ab, wheel. 
$el), roe. 
9?etdb, kingdom. 
9?ei^ s scion. 
9?irtb, beef. 


H 


98 


ETYMOLOGY. 


0?ol)r, reed. 
9?0(?, horse. 

©ftjfc salt - 
©dbaf> sheep, 
©cfrett, piece of wood, 
©cfriff, ship. 
©dbilf, reed. 
©cfjlog, lock. 
©C&mal^, grease, 
©dbocf, number 60. 
©dbwein, swine, 
©cfwert, sword. 
©Cll, rope. 


©iefc, sieve. 
©pecf, bacon. 
©piel, play. 
(5trc^ 5 straw, 
gjtucf, piece. 
XdU, cable. 
XM, dale. 
Xjuer, animal. 
X^Ot, door. 
Xudb, cloth. 
2?erbecf, deck. 
2?erlieg, prison. 
2?te|>, beast. 


2?olf, people. 
2Bacfr3, wax. 
20e&r, dam. 
2Bei6, woman. 
2£er#, tow. 
2BerF, work. 
Sfifttb, game. 
2£ort, word, 
gelt, tent. 

3eu#, stuff. 

3tel, limit, 
ginf, zinc. 

gitm, tin. 


Those substantives of the ancient form which have assumed 
one of the terminations er, el, Oh not affecting the signification 
(§ 33), — e. g. .gammer, hammer ; (gcfmafcel, beak ; .gafen, port, 
— are also masculine : except, — 

a.) The following, which are neuter: 
filter, age. £uber, carrion. 


Qfouev, a cage, 
(fiter, pus. 
(guter, adder, 
guber, load, 
gutter, food. 
(Batter, grate, 
©itter, grate. 
j?lafter, fathom. 
£a$er, couch. 
£ajter, vice. 
Ceter, leather. 


0)?alter, a measure 

of corn. 
D)?effer, knife. 
^Jfteber, boddice. 
$?ujier, pattern. 
^Jolfrer, cushion. 
9?uber, oar. 
@il6er, silver. 
Ufer, bank. 

SBafler, water, 
better, weather. 


2£nnber, wonder, 
gimmer, room. 

3)?a«bet, number 1 5. 
9?ubel, herd, 
•HMel, weasel. 
2M en, basin. 
(?tfen, iron. 

giillen, colt. 
j?if]en, cushion. 
£afen, sheet, 
happen, arms, 
geicjjen, sign. 


b.) The following, which are feminine : 


$(ber, vein, 
buffer, oyster, 
flatter, blister, 
gutter, butter. 
(?ljf er, magpie. 
gafer, fibre. 


geber, pen. 
glitter, tinsel, 
goiter, torture, 
.galfter, halter, 
hammer, chamber, 
belter, wine-press. 


liefer, pine. 
Slammer, cramp. 

flapper, clapper. 

£e6er, liver. 
Ceiter, ladder. 
2)?afer, measles. 


ETYMOLOGY 


99 


Gutter, mother. 
Matter, adder. 
£)tter, adder. 
Ofttjler, elm. 
©cfrteuber, sling. 

©dbulter, shoulder. 
Xodbter, daughter. 
Simper, eye-lash. 
5ldbfe(, shoulder. 
tympd, lamp. 
5(mfe(, blackbird. 

5lngel, hook. 

^Iflclj wood-louse. 
%$d, magpie. 
Qlutfd, boss. 

X'eidbfct, pole. 

Siffel, thistle. 
^VOffel, thrust. 
(£id)d, acorn. 


gdifel, torch. 
geffel, fetter. 

giebel, fiddle. 

@a6el, fork. 

©etgel, scourge. 

@ur#d, throat. 

•gedbel, heckle. 

.gltmmel, humble- 
bee. 

RltQiU globe. 

.^uppel, couple, and 
cupola. 

gmhd, handle. 

Wtax\%$, mangle. 

SMc&et, shell. 

9?abel, needle. 

OTeffcl, nettle. 

9?ltbel, vermicelli. 

Ofafpel, rasp. 


Otofltf, rattle. 

©dbadf>tcl, box. 
©djaufet, shovel. 

©dbaufel, swing, 
©cfnnbel, shingle. 
©cbitfTel, dish, 
©emmet, roll (of 

bread), 
©tdbel, sickle, 
©ptnbel, spindle. 

©taffel, step, 
©toppel, stubble. 
Xafel, table. 
Xrommel, drum. 

Wad)td, quail. 
©SfPS a sort of 

cake. 
^Binbet, swadling. 
%Bm$t 9 root. 


The names of rivers ending in ev and el, e. g. filler, (giber, 
3lter, 3fc Obet, 20efvV, 3)?ofel, are also feminine. 


§ 95. 

Primary substantives of the middle form (§ 34-), e.g. ©pracfre, 
language; ©cbkn^e, snake ; @e6«rt, birth ; j?unbe, knowledge; 
^Ittcftt, flight ; and their compounds with prefixes and adverbs, 
e. g. 2?ettiunft, reason ; $tofunft, arrival ; %lu$fy?ad)Z, pronun- 
ciation ; — are feminine : except, 


2?afl, bass. (£v\\% seriousness. 

2?ebac{)t, reflection, gorjr, forest. 
2)etrad)t, considera- $xoft, frost. 


tion. 

2adbt, wick. 
^DienjT, service. 
Dra(;t, wire. 
SunfJ, vapour. 
Qmft, thirst. 


©ifcfrt, yeast, 
©etturmjl, gain. 

.gedbt, pike. 
.gevBjl, autumn. 
$?i(r, dung. 
3)?0tlb, moon. 
h 2 


9)?01iat, month. 
3)?Cfr, must. 
0?0j?, rust. 

©d)ad[)t, shaftin mines, 
©cfeaft, shaft, 
©dbuft, rascal, 
©olb, pay. 
©tift, tag, peg. 
Xtoff, consolation. 


100 


ETYMOLOGY. 


QJerbadbt, suspicion. -JDidbt,' wight. %ktat, ornament. 
2?erluft loss. Ww% filth. gnrijf, dispute. 

££anfr, paunch. 

which are masculine : — and «0aupt, head ; fiitlb, child ; .^ktnobj 

jewel ; £tc{)t, light ; ©tift, foundation ; which are neuter. 

It is sometimes difficult to distinguish whether a substantive 
belongs to the ancient or to the middle form ; for on the one 
hand, the lingual consonant (t, b), which is one of the charac- 
teristic terminations of the middle form, may also occur in a 
substantive of the ancient form, either as a radical sound, 
e. g. in ber <$lit, hat, from (jiiten, to hide (which is like 9?a£>t, 
seam, from natjen, to sew), or as a final augment (§ 29), e. g. 
in £mb, 93?orb, ^fcrb, ©Ctwert, 2£ort (§ 94), (which are like 
grtljrt, drive, from fasten) : and on the other hand, the termi- 
nation e is frequently dropped in substantives of the middle 
form (§ 34) ; e. g. in bit JQUt, guard ; 5Da(rf, choice ; so as to 
give to them the appearance of substantives of the ancient 
form. In this .way some difficulty arises in ascertaining the 
gender of such substantives : the following list is given of 
substantives belonging to the middle form, and therefore 
feminine, which might have been supposed to be of the ancient 
form. 


$lr6dt, toil. $anb 9 hand. 

$8a\)Xl 9 path. <Qa% haste. 

2tonF 9 bank. .gaitt, skin. 

2}raitt, bride. $ulb, favour. 

s J3n\% breast. .put, guard. 

$mt, brood. M)t (9uicrtd;r), re 

$$UXQ, borough. turn. 

glut, field. £ojr, food. 

glut, flood. £ttl;, cow. 

§l#t*, carrying. j?ur, choice. 

©an$, goose. Kixfyt (WHIM)X) 9 ar- ©dbat, troop. 

©e6tt&V, duty* bitrary will. ©cbatt, show. 

©efafcf, danger. £ail$ y louse. 

@eig, goat. 2)?arf, boundary. 

(Bcwalt, force. 2)?att3, mouse. 

(3ier, eagerness. WlaUt, duty. 


S0?ttc&, milk. 
3)?tl^, spleen, 
Sftotlj, necessity. 
9?ug, nut. 
$em, pain. 
Dual, torment. 
Oiaff, rest. 
OiutjV, dysentery. 

@au, sow. 
©dbam, shame. 


©cbcu, fears, 
©dbmacb, shame, 
©dbmtf, string, 
©(tur, shearing. 




ETYMOLOGY. 101 

©pur, trace. fflatyl, choice. 28ttt&, rage, 

©ttrn, forehead. 28anb, wall. 3 a W> number. 

©tre«, straw. Wd)V 9 defence. %iw, ornament. 
XJHtr, door. 

Of the same description are, 'Datier, duration ; 2dUtY, lurch; 

Seter, solemnity ; 9J?aaer, wall ; ©ckttcr, shed ; and Xmuer, 

mourning; in which the final radical sound v has been changed 
into the syllable er. 

§96. 

Those primary derivatives which are of the description of 
adjective-substantives (§ 35), are masculine, if they are con- 
crete substantives ; e. g. 5l(fe, ape ; 2?iir#e, bail ; 2>ote, mes- 
senger; ,£)irt, shepherd; .jQdb, hero; Dcf)^, ox; except bte 
ffiau, wife; bie -lOaifc, orphan; ^tttUJe, widow: — they are 
neuter, on the other hand, if they are abstract substantives ; 
e. g. ba$ Wti$, the white colour; bd$ ©Ut, the good; ba$ 
Sltnfel, the darkness ; ba£ D?ittel, the means ; ba3 9?edj)t, the 
law ; ba£ UeBel, the evil. 

Gender of Secondary Derivatives and Compounds. 

§97. 

The secondary derivatives formed by the affixes er (§ 38) 
and lin>} (§41), are masculine: those formed by the affixes 
ill (§ 39), una (§ 43), et (§ 46), C, (Kit (J 47), and fcfwft (J 48), 
are all feminine, except -SofnUttg, February, which is mascu- 
line : and substantive-infinitives (§ 42), collective and frequen- 
tative substantives formed by the augment #e (§ 44), and those 
formed by the affixes cf)Cn, kin, d (§ 40), nig, fal, fcl (§ 45), 
and tijttm (§48), are neuter : except, 2?cbvat1#nig and $etru6= 
nig, affliction; SMutttmCVilig, sorrow; ©efbrgmg, apprehen- 
sion ; £Ben)Cmbttttg, condition ; @mpf an#mg, conception ; (?r= 
fpamig, savings; grlail&mfc permission; $aultlig, putrefac- 
tion; Smjlermg, darkness; j?ernitnig, knowledge; Qftr&atnnts 
rag, damnation ; -JMbtligj wilderness ; which are feminine : 
and 3vttt;ttm, error; *KeidS>t&imi, riches; 2ftac()3tl}Um, growth ; 
which are masculine. Xvu6fal, affliction, is employed in the 
feminine as well as in the neuter gender. 


102 ETYMOLOGY. 

Compound substantives have the gender of that component 
(§ 53) which expresses the general meaning of the whole word ; 
e. g. ber SBitwhaum the pear-tree; ba£ $£ein#la$, the wine- 
glass. The substantive 2>3?itttt>odb or ^ittwcdbcn, Wednesday, 
alone follows the analogy of the other names of the days in 
the week, and is masculine, contrary to the general rule. In 
compounds like ber £an#o()r, the long-eared one ; ber @tUtttpf= 
nafe, the flat-nosed one; for £att#6ein, the long-legged one ; 
the determined component (D{jf, 9?afe, 3)etn) has the signifi- 
cation of an adjective (eared, nosed), and the compound has 
the signification and gender of the substantive understood. 
On that account, also, 9?euiiatt$e, lamprey, is feminine. 

Gender of foreign Substantives and of names of countries and 

places. 

§98. 
Foreign substantives, on being adopted in German, gene- 
rally retain the gender of their original language. Some of 
them, however, which have lost the foreign terminations, and 
are assimilated in their form to words originally German, 
have assumed another gender, according to the analogy of 
their form. In this way, e. g. $lltar, £)taleft, £)ipl;t^on#, kotz 

per, ^alafr, fjfmft, Oiuin, Xempel, Xri&ut, 2?itrtot, are mascu- 
line; 2?t6el, &(mfit, Dr#d, .gpmne, are feminine; and $6en= 
tetter, adventure, (£d)0, genjter, §ie6er, ©erne, Mantel, £afn;rtnu% 
papier, Quiver, ftonfulat, (fptffopat, ^rotcftorat, and other abs- 
tracts ending in at, are neuter. 

Proper names of countries and places are neuter : except, 
tie £cmft& bie 3)?avf, bte $fal^ tie ©dwei^, tie Itttfei, and all 
names of countries made by the affix et, which are feminine ; 

and some compounds, e.g. ber 4 Slargau, bev Ofyemgau, bte WtU 
tevatt, bie 2Davt&UV#, which have the gender of their determined 
component. 

§99. 

Some substantives have assumed different genders in dif- 
ferent dialects, or have even altered their gender, retaining 
their original gender for particular significations or in parti- 
cular compounds only ; in consequence of which they are 


( ° fa UaS »an&, the band (tie; 


ETYMOLOGY. 103 

now employed in two genders. Thus we say, bet* 2?evbac()t, 
suspicion, and bk $lnbac{jt, devotion ; ber .godbttWtl;, pride, ber 
(SbeltttUt^, generosity, and bie ©anftttlUtlj, gentleness ; bie @rog; 
tttutj), magnanimity, bic ©dbtt>ettmit|>, melancholy ; ber ^I6fdbeu, 
horror, and bte @cbeu, shyness, bie 2#afferfc(KU, hydrophobia ; 
ber 2?erM;r, intercourse, and bk 9uiftef)r, return. 

A different signification is especially pointed out by a dif- 
ference of gender in the following substantives:— 

bet* 3?anb, the volume 
book) 

ber 2?Mlb, the alliance ba$ 2?Mlb, the bundle. 

bet @&or, the choir bd$ (5l)cr, the chorus. 

bie(£tf emitnij?, knowledge .... $>a§ (Mevmtuij?, judicial decision. 

ber (Mjalt, the contents ba$ (Mjatt, the salary. 

ber (Sift, saliva, foam bd§ (Sift, the poison. 

bet .Qaxfo the Harz forest.... ba£ <0ar£, resin. 

ber £ol)n, reward ba$ £ol)n, the wages. 

ber 3)?enfcb, man ba$ SDfeiifdb, a wench. 

ber ©cfcilb, the shield ba$ ©cfrilb, the sign of an inn. 

ber @ee, the lake bit @ee, the sea. 

fccr ©tift, the peg, tag | bagtift, foundation (ecclesias- 

ber Xljeil, part of a whole ... ba$ Xfjeit, the share, portion. 

bcr mutiff, the profit rfWajertJenp, the merit 
labour J 

Observation l. — The compounds of S&etl are masculine: Urt^e it, judge- 
ment, however, is neuter. 

Observation 2. — IDer Matter, the farmer, and bfl$ gaiter, the cage; ber 
(5rfre, the heir, and ba» @rbe, the inheritance; ber Jpeibe, the pagan, and 
bte $etbe, heath ; ber liefer, jaw, and bie liefer, pine; ber £unbe, cus- 
tomer, and bte &unbe, knowledge ; ber Better, conductor, and bte Better, 
ladder; ber ^flan^el, want, and bte 3J?anQef, mangle; and some others, 
though having the same letters, belong either to different roots, or to dif- 
ferent forms of derivation, and therefore are not to be considered as the 
same words. 

Articles. 

§100. 
The distinction of individuality (§ 6) in the persons and 
things expressed by substantives, is pointed out by articles in 
German, as in English. There are two articles, the definite 


104 


ETYMOLOGY. 


and the indefinite ; in both of which the three genders and 
three cases are distinguished by inflection. The indefinite 
article, as in English, has no plural number. They are de- 
clined in the following way : 



Definite Article (the), 

.A, 


Indefinite Article (an, a) 


Sing. 

Ptor. 

Sing. 


masc. fern. neut. 


C 1 

masc. fem. neut. 

N. 

ber t>ie ba$, 

bk. 

N. i\\\ etne em. 

G. 

be$ ber be3, 

for. 

G. etne£ etner eme$. 

D. 

bent ber tern, 

ben. 

D. einem etnev etnem 

Ac. 

ben bk ba$ 9 

Me. 

Ac. etnen cine cm. 


§ 101. 

The general rules for the use of articles in German are the 
same as in English: names of materials, — e. g. gaffer, water; 
©Ctnb, sand ; and abstract substantives, e. g. ©tol^, pride ; 
9?tu)e 5 rest; — in which no individual is distinguished, assume no 
article : proper names also, which properly denote individuals 
not conceived as individuals of a species (§ 6), assume no 
article; and we class along with them the names of the quar- 
ters of the globe, Dflen, 28effen, 9?orben, ©uben. Common 
names, which imply species comprehending many individuals, 
e. g. ^Pfcrbj horse ; 3?aum, tree ; assume either the definite 
or the indefinite article, according as either a definite indi- 
vidual of the species, e. g. ba$ $ferb mcine$ 2?atev£, or an 
indefinite one, e. g. ein $PfCfb 5 a horse, is understood. 

A common name in the plural number, not distinguishing 
any individuals of the species, is like a name of materials, and 
consequently assumes no article; e. g. ^ferbe, horses; 2?aitttlC, 
trees. When, on the other hand, names cf materials or proper 
names assume the signification of common names, they take 
articles ; e. g. ber rfjeimfdbe %B*i\h the Rhenish wine; ©Cttpeter 
iff '€ ttl ©fttfc nitre is a salt; ntdf)t 3cbct iff etn 9?ett>ton, every 
man is not a Newton; bit ©tltart$; bk Q$cmho\i$. The 
German practice however regarding the use of articles is in 
many respects different from that of the English, as will be 
seen from the following rules, 


ETYMOLOGY. 105 

§102. 

Proper names admit of the definite article, when a particular 
relation to the speaker, i. e. that of familiar intercourse, is to 
be expressed; e.g. Utfe tttir ben %Qfycm, call John ; $Xl\$t tie 
SDtavie, remember me to Mary # . In the same way the article 
is given to names of materials, if a particular specimen is to be 
pointed out; e. g. 6rin#e mix ben ^affee, bring me (my) coffee; 
WO iff bet 2£etn? where is the wine? An adjective standing 
before proper names always gives them the value of com- 
mon names; and they assume the definite article; e. g. bet* 
arme 3o|)an, poor John ; b te fc^bne 9?0fattWttbe, fair Rosamond, 

ber fcetlige $eter, St. Peter. 

On the other hand, common names take no article if they 
rather express a quality or condition than individuality ; e. g. 
3db 6tn 2?ater, I am a father ; er ift ©olbat #eworben, he has 
become a soldier ; er iff j?aufttWnn, he is a merchant; er ljail= 
belt at$ ^retinb, he acts as a friend f . Names of nations, how- 
ever, in this case always take the article; e.g. er iff e in ffiatl* 

$ofe, ein ©nglanber, ein Seutfc&er, he is a Frenchman, an 

Englishman, a German. 

Common names have the signification .of abstract substan- 
tives, and admit of no article in expressions like £U Xifcfre, $U 
3[)?arfte, git 99ette gefyett, to go to dinner, to the fair, to bed ; 

and er reifet ^u g-uge, ^u $fer^e, ^u 2£a$en, $u ©cfciffe, he travels 

on foot, on horseback, in a carriage, in a ship. The most 
usual titles, which have the subordinate accent, take no article; 

e. g. #bntg £ear, king Lear, Softer ©all, $rau Scjmfon, -j?at= 
fer j?arl; (we say, however, bie .ft buy in (£lifa6etl;, bie j?atferm 

2)?aria Xl?erefia.) The same applies to titles of books; e.g. 
Seutfc|)e ©rantmatif, German grammar. In expressions like 
tin R'cnid O&ne £anb, a king without a territory ; er £tel)t u6er 
2>er# Uilb £l)Ctl, he marches over hill and dale. The common 
names are used in the most general and indefinite significa- 
tion, and have therefore no article before them. 

In German the definite article is employed in a peculiar 


* Set ZeU gefongen rtfcgefityrt ! Sch. 

Sop mng'6 unb roill'6 nicfyt glnufcen bog mtrf> ber 3J?<u uerirtjjen fynt. tfc/j. 
f 2)cin ©ojjn ift ftontg ober @f(nu, rote bu ic&ft ober ftirbft. ScA. 


106 ETYMOLOGY. 

way, in order to represent the whole of a genus or species of 
concrete things, or the whole extent of an abstract notion. 
Thus in expressions like butcf) bte 2?etnUttft Mltetfdfjetbet ftdb bit 
50?etlfc() von bent Zfyktt, by reason man is distinguished from 
beasts; bet gifdb fdbttrimmt Unb bit 2?0#el flteflt, fishes swim 
and birds fly ; a^men (mankind), all beasts, fishes, and birds, 
are expressed by the definite article standing before the sub- 
stantive in the singular number : and in expressions like b&$ 

(Mb iff beljn&at, gold is ductile; ba$ Staffer (ft fatfcenlo£, 
water is colourless; ba$ Quecfftl6et ift em (TitjTtcje^ detail, 

quicksilver is a liquid metal ; all gold, water, or quicksilver, 
is understood. In the same manner we say, e. g. ba$ £e6en tj? 
hlVfa bte j?tmj? afot lang, vita brevis, ars longa ; bk Xu#enb tj? 
fetil teetet @c()all, virtue is not an empty sound; bet ©Iatl6e 
mad)t fcltgj faith is saving *, The abstract notion, which com- 
monly is conceived indefinitely like the notions of materials f, 
is in these expressions represented as an individual. Substan- 
tive-infinitives (§ 42) commonly express the abstract notion in 
this comprehensive way, and therefore generally take the 
definite article ; e. g. ba$ SpftC&etl iff bem $?enf<#en mtuttidj, 
language is natural to man ; bd$ 9?e$tten ift etne fcfwere Runft, 
governing is a difficult art ; et fybfit ba$ ©ttlbiten, he hates 
study. Substantive-infinitives however are sometimes used 
in the other way also ; e. g. et benft nut an (fflen unb Xtinfen, 
he thinks only of eating and drinking ; et 6efcl)afti#t fid) mit 
£efett, nttt ©pielen, he amuses himself with reading, with 
playing. 

The German idiom requires the article before substantives 
expressing time (months, days, and parts of the day) ; e. g. bit 
5m(}lm#) spring ; bit ©Cttttttet, summer ; bit Wl at, May ; bit 
@omita$, Sunday ; bit $(6enb, evening : before the collective 
names of corporations, orders, ranks, and systems of belief or 
government ; e. g. ba§ $atlament, parliament ; bit $lbel, no- 
bility; ba^(5^tillentl)Um, Christianity; ba$ jubentyuttt, Judaism ; 

• * 25te ftiifynfyeit mnd)t, bte gteiljeit ben ©ofbaten. Sch. 
Grrnjt ift bag Sefcen, fjeiter ift bte ^unft. Sch. 
2>ie SCiuqfytit tatfy% bie Sffotfj gefceut'S. Sch. 
20ie bte £ugenb fyat brtS Snfter feine @r<ibe. Schlegel. 
f £rieg ift enug jroifdjcn Sift unb Strgrootyn; nut jnufcfyen ©frtufcen unb 
SBemnuen ift $titt>t. Sch. 


ETYMOLOGY. 107 

bit 3)?onarci[»e, monarchy ; tie ©CtttofYatie, democracy : and be- 
fore the substantives, Statur, nature ; £e6en, life ; Xob, death*; 
3itfaU, chance; (gcfritffal, fatef; @IM, luck; ©efe& law; 
(gttte, custom; (gljeftonb, matrimony; @tabt, town; ^ird)C, 
church ; .gmtntet, heaven ; (jrrbe, earth ; and some others, the 
notion of which is conceived individually. 

It is not agreeable to the German idiom to place an article 
after the indefinite numerals, ntCUldjw and alU, as in the English 
expressions many a man, member 3)t arm ; all the world, alk 
2£eft. The numerals fnmbevt and tattfenb are sometimes used 
as substantives ; in which case they assume an article : usually, 
however, they, like other numerals, admit of no article. Proper 
names of rivers, lakes, and mountains, have the definite article 
as in English. 

Observation. — The article is frequently omitted for the sake of eurythmy, 
when two or more substantives are connected by copulative conjunctions ; 
e. g. bu folljt 2tater unb Gutter efjren, thou shalt honour (thy) father and 
(thy) mother; er fyat 2Bet6 unb £tttb Derfaffen, he has left (his) wife and 
(his) children; er geiobet mit Wtnnb unb $anb, he promises with (his) 
mouth and (his) hand J. The same applies especially to expressions formed 
by alliteration ; e. g. $au* unb £0f pevtaffen, to leave house and home ; fie 
finb mit ^ann Unb 3J?au$ ertrunfen, they have been drowned altogether 
(with men and mice); 3£of? unb Neuter, (the) horse and (his) rider; U6et 
(StOCf unb ©tetn laufen, to run over sticks and stones ; mit 3?au) unb X&at 
bctjre^cn, to assist with words and deeds, with heart and hand. The article 
is also omitted in expressions like tcf) ftabe e$ in £atlben, I have it in (my) 
hands ; er jiefjt e£ t?or ^(Ugen, he sees it before (his) eyes ; in which the 
possessive pronoun is generally added in English. 

§ 103. 

Declension is expressed in its greatest perfection in the 
definite article (§ 100); substantives therefore which do not 
generally take an article, frequently assume it in order to 
distinguish cases, if this is not sufficiently done by the inflec- 
tion of the substantive itself, or by a preposition. In this way 
the definite article stands before proper names of persons, when 

* 5Qeid)t nid)t bem Zote, gefcietet ber 9?<itur. Sch. 
t 2)et £<ig be$ ©d)trffa(S ift gefotnmen. Sck. 
J (Friiffne beine ©d)lunbe wiibtS WHettl 

5Bccfd>iinge @d)iff unb k 3ft<inn unb @d)rt£e. G'dthe. 

3&m fdjenft fie £f)ton unb £anb. Sch. 


108 ETYMOLOGY. 

they do not admit of a perfect declension; e.g. atjnlicf) bettt 
*JMatO, similar to PJato; ba$ ,!$eer be 3 3ttt£e& the army of 
Xerxes; ber Sob be3 @ofmte3, the death of Socrates*. In 
the same way it is frequently taken by the names of materials 
and abstract substantives, especially if they are of the feminine 
gender, and therefore not declined in the singular number; 
e.g. bet fttft ent6e|)reri, to want air; ev £iei# Waffzt bit Wild) 
VOX, he prefers water to milk; bet 4 £tc6e Wiixbig, worthy of 
affection ; ba§ Rinb biX ©dbutb, the offspring of guilt f. 

For the same purpose common names, — if they imply a species 
or genus indefinitely, and ought to have the indefinite article 
in the singular number, and no article at all in the plural, — 
assume the definite article in the plural number; e.g. ber 
©efang bet 2?b#el, the singing of birds ; bie Chiming bcr 9?fc 
tiufotfcber, the opinion of naturalists ; bit ©pick ber Jvillber, 
the amusements of children. 

The definite article is also employed in order to distinguish 
the gender of those proper names of countries and places 
which are not of the neuter gender (§ 98) ; e. g. bk ©CJJttWJ, 
bie J?0ttft& bet 9t^cm,qa«, bk WaxthtXQ : and with female sur- 
names, if no title (^vatt, $rattlehl) is given to them ; e. g. bk 

@atalani, bk ©omitag. 

Plural number of Substantives. 

§ 104. 

Common names are by their signification entitled to a plural 
number : proper names, names of materials, and all abstract 
substantives, have no plural number ; but whenever they are 
considered as common names (§ 101), they also take a plural 
number; e.g. bk @tuatt3; bk WlhKXahvafftX, the mineral 
waters; bk (£xbm, the earths; bk ©eilitp, enjoyments; bk 
iganbluiKjen, actions ; bk Xu#enben, virtues. 

However, every language has its own peculiar practice 
with regard to the use of the plural number. Many abstract 
substantives which are primary derivatives, are not susceptible 

* 50nr' id) bem ^rbintinb geroefcn, rortS Oftnuio mit runt ! Sch. 

(?£> tam bet S£I;cti^ fcunteS £eet. Sch. 
t 2)et X(\Q bet 9?ndf)c iff gcfommen. Sch. 

Setrifj er mit ben Seffetn ber $urd)i nut nid)t bie giigct bet (gdjrtm. -St/*. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


109 


of the plural number, though the corresponding substantives 
in English in some cases assume it. Such are, 


tie 9Inftmft, arrival, 
ber %ltQW0tyxi 9 suspicion, 
bet £BegitUl 9 the beginning, 
ber £8tUlb, the alliance, 
bev Xtetlf, thanks, 
bet ^mcf, the impression. 
bit (£i;re 5 honour. 
t>d$ (iknb, misery. 

ber Ormpfan#, receipt. 
bU $ltrc(jt, fear. 
ba$ ©Iticf, fortune. 
bet 4 ©ram, grief. 
bet 4 .gaber, dispute, 
ber jammer, misery. 

ber ^attf, the purchase. 

ber Summer, affliction. 
bk £ie6e, love. 
ba§ £06, praise, 
ber £o£m, the reward, 
ber $?tmb, mouth. 

bit ^radbt, splendour. 


bet 4 Statl), advice, 
ber 0?au6, the spoil, 
ber @dbeitt, appearance, 
ber (Sclmutcf, ornament, 
ber ©tranb, strand, 
ber ®treit, the dispute, 
ber ©tttfy the fall, 
ber Xabel, reproach, 
ber Zaufcb, exchange, 
ber Xrofr, consolation. 

ba$ Urtrecbt, wrong. 

t>a$ Ullgtticf, misfortune, 
ber Untemdbt, instruction. 

ber 2?erbacfjt, suspicion, 
ber 2?er(lanb, understanding, 
ber 2?erbruj?, vexation, 
bte 2?or|?c(?t, precaution, 
ber vfRafyll, the false idea, 
ber 3 a ^9 quarrel, 
ber S^an^, the constraint, 
ber Swift dispute. 


Along with which the substantive-infinitives, Ce&etl, life ; 2?er= 
ttl6$en, fortune; 3?erlart^en, wish; (fnt^ttfen, rapture; 2fafes 
(Ktt, authority; (fuifommen, revenue; must be classed. In 
these substantives the plural number of the English is sup- 
plied either by the singular number, e. g. tnel X^attf, £06, 
^ttrc&t, &c. many thanks, praises, fears; or by other synony- 
mous substantives, e. g. SBiuibmfle, Summer ruffe, 2Mo&mm#en, 
XrcjilU1$en, gwiftt.gfetten, (?mfimfte, alliances, afflictions, re- 
wards, consolations, quarrels, revenues. 

Names of materials, e. g. 2lfc|)e, ashes ; ©atlb, sand ; XfydU, 
dew; (gdbnee, snow; Dfogettj rain; Unfraut, weeds, &c. do 
not assume the plural number ; and along with them are to 
be classed, in this respect, all masculine and neuter names of 
plants ; e. g. ^O^t, cabbage ; .jjopfett, hops. Exceptions are, 
ber ©dbwanmi, ber $il^, ba$ @ra£, ba$ £raut, ba$ 2D?oo£, and 


110 ETYMOLOGY. 

some others, when different species of the same genus are to 
be expressed. 

In German, as in other languages, some substantives are 
used only in the plural number. Some of them, e. g. 5lfynCtt, 
ancestors; gltem, parents; $ttpen, alps; 2?emftetber and .00= 
fen, trousers ; ^ugftapfen, footsteps ; ©efcmbev, brothers ; ©c= 
fcfrttttfTer, brother and sister ; ©liebmagen, limbs ; £ettte, people ; 
©dbtanf en, bounds ; imply plurality of individuals; — but others, 
e.g. 2?neffdbaften, papers; (gmfiinfte, revenue ; ©efalle, rents; 
.gefen, yeast; Soften, expenses; 20?afeM, measles; SDMfett, whey; 
0?anfe, tricks ; 9?btj)eln, measles ; ©potteln, fees ; Xre&er, lees ; 
Xmmmer, ruins ; Xnippen, troops ; geitlaufte, occurrences of 
the time ; express notions of materials conceived without any 
distinction of individuals in the plural number. §aften, Lent ; 
gerien, vacation (holidays); Djfew, Easter; ^fmcjjten, Whit- 
suntide ; and 2De$nfldf)ten, Christmas ; were originally con- 
ceived as expressing a plurality of days ; and the plural 
number has been retained in them, though they are not now 
conceived in the same way. 

Observation 1. — Cetlte (French gens) implies a number of persons in the 
most indefinite way, without distinguishing either the species, as is done in 
3ftenf#en, or the sex, as in banner. In this way the plural forms, Canbleute, 
country people ; (5f)eteute, married people; (Sbelleute, noblemen; £auf= 
leute, merchants, (from £anbtt13M1, dbeurwnn, &c.) are distinguished from 

<5fjrenmamter,men of honour; Wmtmanner, bailiffs; (gfjemannev, married 

men (from @&renmantl, &c); and from Unmenfcljen, inhuman (beings); 

^alfcmenfcfren, halfmen (from Unmenfcfr, &c). 

Observation 2. — The substantives ba$ $aar, the hair ; bd§ G£it\$eweibe, 
and 5a$ ©ebarm, the intestines; bd$ ©cwilrm, worms ; ba$ (Sebe'm, the 
bones of a body ; although susceptible of the plural number, are also used 
collectively in the singular number. 

§ 105. 
The names of measures, numbers, or weights, when pre- 
ceded by numerals, do not take the inflection of the plural 
number; e. g. fedb$ Jug lanQ, six foot long; %mi tyaav (Edjlu)e, 
two pair of shoes ; bm X>u$enb $lepfel, three dozen of apples ; 
fie&etl ©tiicf 2?te(}, seven head of cattle ; trier $ftmb 2?V0b, four 
pounds of bread. The same applies to 2)?ann, if it implies a 
number; e. g. cin 9?egiment VOW taufenb Wlamh a regiment of 


ETYMOLOGY. Ill 

a thousand men. Feminine substantives, however, and those 
which imply a measure of time, are excepted from this rule ; 
e. g. fecM (£llm Xltcb, six yards of cloth ; ftefcen 93?eilen, seven 
miles ; bvet ^s&fytt, three years. The expression e$ tft tftev UfyV, 
it is four o'clock, is elliptical, instead of e$ iff t?tet an be? Upr. 

Declension of Substantives. 

§106. 

In the declension of German substantives, not only the sin- 
gular and plural numbers are distinguished, as in English, 
but also three cases, viz. the genitive, dative, and accusative, 
as in Greek. There are also two forms of declension for sub- 
stantives, distinguished by the denominations of the ancient 
and of the modem form, and corresponding to the same forms 
of conjugation (§ 79). 

Observation.— The ancient form, e.g. bit $llf>, Gen. be$ $Uf?e£, PI. bte 
$\\§?, seems to be the form of declension primitively appropriated to sub- 
stantives: and the modern form, e.g. bcv knabe, Gen. bt§ itnaben, PI. bie 
•ftna&en, which does not differ from the modern form of declension of ad- 
jectives, e. g. gute, Gen. £Utet1, PI. CJUten, seems originally to belong only 
to adjective-substantives (§ 7). Many substantives, however, which origi- 
nally have had the ancient form of declension, and in particular the most 
part of feminine substantives, have adopted the modern form : some of 
them have assumed the modern form only in the plural number, retaining 
the ancient in the singular. 

§107. 

In the ancient form, the genitive case singular has the sign 
e$, the dative e, and the accusative is like the nominative. All 
cases of the plural number have c, except the dative, which 
has ett. When the substantive is a primary derivative, and 
has the vowel a, 0, or a, it is generally modified (§ 24) in the 
plural number. The English plurals feet, geese, lice, mice, 
are remains of this declension. 

In the modern form, the genitive and all cases of the singu- 
lar as well as plural number have the sign en, which the 
English has retained in oxen and brethren. In this form the 
vowel is not modified in the plural. 

Some substantives declined in the ancient form have assumed 


112 ETYMOLOGY. 

the sign t after the e of the plural number ; e. g. ©ei]T=cr, 
©etfcetn, instead of ©etjbe, ©etjben. 

When substantives have a final e not accented, it is omitted 
before the signs of declension. 

Feminine substantives generally are not at all declined in 
the singular number. 

Both forms of declension are exhibited in the following 
tabular view. 

Ancient form of Declension. 

Singular. 

Nom. bev ©o&n (son) bit 2Mb (wood) bte 9?adbt (night) 

Gen. be$ @ot;m=e$ be$ 3Mb;e3 bet Stfadbt 

Dat. bem ©o^n* bem Walb* bit 9?adbt 

Ace. ben ©otjn ben SEtolb t>ie 9?acj)t 

Plural. 

Nom. bte ©ofcn*e bte talker t>ic 9?acfct"C 

Gen. ber ©o&me bet SSMfcet bet 3?ac^t=e 

Dat. ben ©b^ti-en ben 2£alb=etn bin dl'tifyum 

Ace. bie ©b^n-e. bte 3£alb;et. bte 9?adbt-e. 

Modern form of Declension. 

Singular. 
Nom. bit ©taf (count) bk $tail (woman) 

Gen. be3 @taf=en bit $tau 

Dat. bem ©rafcen bit fixcm 

Ace. ben ©taf=en bte ^tau 

Plural. 

Nom. bk ©taf-en bk gtat^en 

Gen. bet@taf=en ber graven 

Dat. ben ©tafcen ben $tatt*en 

Ace. bte ©taf^en. bk %tau;ir\. 

Observation. — In ancient German, feminine substantives were declined 
in the singular number also ; the remainder of which practice we have in 
the expressions JU ©Itnffett, in favour; auf (Srben, upon earth; con 
(Sett en, from the part; con 6tatten ge&en, to succeed; ju @c&anoen 
werben, to be put to shame ; and some others. 


ETYMOLOGY. 113 

§108. 

In the signs of declension, as in the signs of conjugation 
(§ 80), the vowel e (and if the whole of the termination consists 
of this vowel, the whole termination) is frequently dropped for 
the sake of eurythmy. This omission of the vowel e is very 
common in the genitive and dative cases of polysyllables, 
when the last syllable is unaccented ; e. g. be3 R6m$$, fcettt 
$M$; be££>l;eim$, bemD^eim; be3 2D?onat3, bem 3)?onat; in- 
stead of .^oni^e^, £bm#'e, &c 

The vowel e is always dropped, both in the singular and 
plural number, when the substantive has one of the un- 
accented terminations er, el, en, often, and (em; e.g. 2?ater, 

father; $ttt#el, wing; Xe#ei1, sword; Wdbd)ttt, girl; grail; 

lein, young lady ;— G. be3 2?ater3, N. pi. tie 2?ater, &c 

The vowel e is also frequently omitted in the dative case of 
substantives declined in the ancient form, though they have 
no unaccented termination, when they are abstract substan- 
tives or names of materials, and used without an article in a 
general and indefinite signification ; e. g. mit ©tUVm emtieljmen, 
to take by storm ; gttt>a$ mit 2?erftatlb t&tm, to perform some- 
thing with skill ; mit 2Bein aBwafcfjetl, to wash with wine ; mit 
@tft tobtett, to kill by poison ; (£ttt>a$ mit $leig t&Mt, to do on 
purpose ; em Sfan^ VOU ©olb, a ring of gold. When, on the 
other hand, an article, a pronoun, or an adjective, stands before 
the substantive, the vowel e is not dropped ; e. g. in t^m evflen 
StUVme, by the first storm ; mit feiuem 2£eme, with his wine ; 
t?on veinem ©olbe, of pure gold. 

Substantives declined in the Ancient form. 

§ 109. 

The following substantives are of the ancient form of de- 
clension. 

1.) All substantives originally German, of the masculine 
and neuter genders, from which only those names of persons 
and animals are excepted which are of the description of ad- 
jective-substantives (§ 7. see § 111). 

2.) The following primary derivatives of the feminine gen- 
der : 


114 


ETYMOLOGY. 


$(W}fI, anguish. 
5lu^fTudbt, evasion 
$trt, axe. 
SJanF, bench. 
fgtaut, bride. 
£fru|?, breast. 
<gau|r, fist. 
$mcf)t, fruit. 

©ani, goose. 


9?adbt ? night. 
9?a£t, seam. 
9?0tfj, affliction. 
Stag, nut. 
©ait, sow. 
©cfmur, string, 
©tabt, town. 
Xodbter, daughter. 
SBanb, wall. 


,0aut, skin. 

^(uft, fissure. 

j?raft, force. 

£ul?, cow. 

jfruifr, art. 

£au$, louse. 

£ltft, air. 

£uj?, delight. 

3)?adbt, power, 
©efc&ttmlf?, tumour. $)?a$b,maid-servant. 2Mjr, tumour. 
©Wft, grave. 2D?au3, mouse. 2Durj?, sausage, 

.gatlb, hand. 2D?Utter, mother. S^fo guild. 

And the compounds of the substantives ^tmft and £attft 
which are not used separate ; e. g. SufcmttttenFlttlftj meeting ; 
©tlftmfte, revenue; and 3citlaufte, occurrences of time; which 
are usual only in the plural number (§ 104). The compounds 
of SDtodbt, e. g. D&tmtadbt, swoon, and 2?0ttntodbt, credentials, 
are, on the other hand, declined in the modern form. 

3.) The secondary derivatives of the feminine gender made 
by the affix nig (§ 97). 

The terminations of the plural number have the sign t 
(§ 107), 

a.) In the following masculine substantives: 

99ofettHC&t, malefactor. £et6, body. SfatdbtfjUtttj riches. 

Scvn, thorn. 2)?ami, man. 2?ormtm£>, guardian. 

Oetff, ghost. Drt, place. $Mb 5 forest. 

@0tt, God. 9font>, margin. 2£urm, worm. 

3vVt^um, error. 

b.) In all primary derivatives of the neuter gender (§ 94) 
which have not the augment $e, and have for their final sound 
a mute consonant or a semi-consonant (f, fcf)) ; e. g. $al&, calf, 
$al6et: except, — 

23eet, bed (in a garden), glofo float. £oo3, lot. 

JBejietf, case. @ift, poison. £otf), plummet. 

SBtok, bread. .gat J, resin. SJtof?, measure. 

SuiCj, thing. .geft, haft. $?003, moss. 

(Sjcf, edge. 3DC&, yoke. 9fe& net. 

@tj, ore. pretty cross. $fevb, horse. 


ETYMOLOGY. 115 

$fim£>, pound. ©cfraf, sheep. 2?erbecf, deck. 

Ofcdbt, law. ©cfnff, ship. 2?etlte3, prison. 

0?ctdb, kingdom. ©cfeocf, the number 60. 3Berf, work. 

0?oj?, horse. @te&, sieve. 3^*> tent * 

©al$, salt. ©tiicf, piece. 3 eu & stuff - 

Those primary derivatives of the neuter gender, on the other 
hand, which have the augment ge, or a final vowel or liquid 
consonant, e. g. ba3 (Befe$, the law ; ba$ ^Ute, the knee ; ba$ 
^ein, the leg ; do not assume the sign x in the plural number : 
except, — 

©, egg. ffllal, mark. @efcbled[)t, race. 

^Otn, horn. 2D?aul, mouth. ©cftC&t, face, 

.gu^n, hen. Xtyat, valley. (Befpenf?, spectre, 

jbw, corn. ©emadb, room. ©ettMlb, garment. 

2amm, lamb. ©emitti}, mind. 

20M, in the compound 3J?etf mat, token, has the plural form 
$)?etfmate. 

Of secondary derivatives, only those made by the affix t^Uttt 
(§ 48) take the sign ? in the plural. 

The following substantives have the singular number declined 
in the ancient, and the plural in the modern form (§ 106) : 

1.) The masculine substantives, — 

$lfm 5 ancestor (not Wtd% mast. (5ttCu)t, beam. 

now used in the 9?ac&6at, neighbour, ©tmttf?, ostrich. 

singular number). $fau, peacock. better, cousin. 

$ovjr, forest. (gee, lake. Untert^an, subject, 

©efatter, godfather, ©portl, spur. %kxat, ornament, 

itorfceev, laurel. ©tadbet, sting. 

2.) The neuter substantives, $ltt#e, eye ; 35ett, bed ; (?nbe, 
end; J5emb, shirt; .gety heart; and D^t, ear. From $ett 
and .0emb, however, the plural is made also in the ancient 
form ; e. g. 2?ette 5 Member. «j5et J has in the singular number 
gen. .gev^en^, and dat. .get^en. The substantives, ^el^, rock ; 
gviebe, peace ; $Uttfe, spark; ©ebanfe, thought ; ©laufce, belief; 
«6aufe, heap ; Stanie, name ; ©ame, seed ; ©dfrabe, damage ; 
SBucfrffafce, letter ; WdU, will ; originally had the termination 
en, and are still declined according to this termination (§ 108); 

i 2 


116 


ETYMOLOGY. 


e.g. N. 9?ame, G. 9?amen$, D. 9?ante!!j N. pi. D?amen. ©dbmer$ 
is declined in the ancient form in the singular number, and in 
the modern form in the plural ; but has ©d[)mer$en$ for the 
genitive singular. 

§ 110. 

Primary derivatives declined in the ancient form have the 
vowels a, 0, it, modified in the plural number ; e. g. fBcid), 
brook, S3'dd)l ; ©oljn, son, ©bfjne ; ©tt$l, stool, ©tittle. The 
following however are exceptions : 

1.) All neuter substantives which do not assume the sign r 
in the terminations of the plural number; e. g. fca£ ©cj)af, 
©cf>afe. 

2.) Those primary derivatives of the masculine gender, which 
have assumed the terminations er, el, en (§ 94) ; e. g. fc>er ©Ottts 
mer, summer, tie ©ommer ; ber .gafen, hook, tie .gafen : except 
the following, which have the vowel modified : 

Slcfer, field. -gatl&et, quarrel. Robert, bottom. 

23m£>er, brother. Mangel, fault. 5 a ^ en > fathom. 

Wlcmtd, cloak. 

9fo6el, navel. 

9?a$el, nail. 

©attel, saddle. 

©cjmafcel, beak. 

2?0^el, bird. 


.gammer, hammer. 
©Cjwagev, brother- 
in-law. 
2?ater, father. 
2lpfel, apple, 
•gammel, wedder. 


©artett, garden, 
©ra&en, ditch. 
.gafeti, port. 
Dftn, stove, 
©cfraben, damage. 


In 2)0$en, arch; £aben, shutter, shop; 2)?a#en, stomach; 
2£a#en, carriage ; the practice in this respect varies. 
3.) The following masculine substantives: 


$lal, eel. 
Slav, eagle. 
$lmfcog, anvil. . 
Slnnmlt, attorney. 
2ltttt, arm. 
®0Cf)i, wick. 
Solcfc, dagger. 
@ema|)l, husband, 
.fjalm, stalk, 
■gaudb, breath. 


-gerjOfl, duke, 
.guf, hoof. 

•gmib, dog. 

j^O&olb, hobgoblin. 
£aut, sound. 
£ucj)3, lynx. 
3)?old[), salamander. 
2)?onfc>, moon. 
2)?onat, month. 
$fat>, path. 


©4wk shoe. 
©taar, starling. 
©toff, stuff. 
Xa#, day. 

Xuinfenfcoib, drunk- 
ard. 
Un^olb, monster. 
Sftelfrajf, glutton. 
2#iebe&opf, hoop. 
3oll, inch. 


ETYMOLOGY* 117 

In £adb$, salmon, the practice is variable. 

Observation.— The affix n)ltm, e.g. in ^rvtfwm, being originally a notional 
word (§ 1), has the vowel modified in the plural number; e.g. HfrnfjUmer. 

Substantives declined in the Modern form, 

§ 111. 

The following substantives have the modern form of declen- 
sion : 

1.) All feminine substantives except those mentioned above 
(§ 109, 2 and 3). 

2.) Those masculine names of persons and animals, which 
are of the description of adjective-substantives (§ 7): such 
are, — 

fB'&K bear. ©mf, count. 9?at?, fool. 

f8amt 9 farmer. .gelb, hero. Ddb$, ox. 

giirfr, prince. .gerr, lord, master. Xfror, fool. 

(Beef, fool. .gtrt, herdsman. 2?0rfal)r, ancestor. 

(Befell, companion. $?enfdb, man. 

And all masculine names of persons and animals which have 
the termination e ; e. g. 29ote, messenger ; ^na6e, boy ; (grfce, 
heir ; $lffe, ape ; .gafe, hare ; £btt>e, lion ; ^alfe, falcon. 

3.) The names of nations ending in e, which are also of the 
description of adjective- substantives; e. g. 39bf)ttte, Bohemian; 
tSxittt, Briton; %tax\h, Frank; ©acj)fe, Saxon; ©cjwafce, 
Swabian; ©ctwebe, Swede; 3«^> J ew » — SSbkY, Bavarian; 
SBaxhat, Barbarian; gaffer, CafFer; D)?0^r, Moor; Xartar, 
Tartar; Un#ar, Hungarian, &c. are of the same class, the 
final e being thrown off. 

§112. 

There are some substantives which have two forms of the 
plural number, originating from varieties of dialect; e. g. 
£anbe and Muter, countries ; £)rte and ©erter, places; ^owen 
and Sower, thorns; $afyx\i and £aljmn, cocks. Different 
significations are distinguished by different forms of the plural 
number in the following substantives : — 


118 ETYMOLOGY. 

ba$ Sanb, PI. bte fBawbtx, ribbons. 

bk ^Banbe, chains, ties, 
bie 2?anf, — bte SJaitf e, benches. 

bte ^Banfcn, (commercial) banks. 
ba3 Sett, — bte Sette, beds. 

bte ScttCH, bedding. 

ba$ ©efidbt, — bte ©ejtdbter, faces. 

bte ©eftcfcte, visions. 
ba$ .gjorn, — bte Corner, horns. 

bie &OXM, different kinds of horn. 
bk (Ban, — bk (&aut, pigs. 

bte Satten, wild boars. 
bd§ fflQtt — bk hotter, single words. 

bte SBotte, words forming sentences (speech). 
ba$ ®U1£ — bk 2>ttt#e, things generally. 

bte 2)tn$ef, things, most part animals or crea- 
tures ; e. g. bte flemen Sm#er, the 
small animals ; bte jun#ett Sutler, 
the young girls. 
ba$ ©tttcf, — bte ©tticfe, pieces. 

bte ©ttidfen, fragments. 

Declension of Foreign Substantives. 

§ 113. 

In general the declension of foreign substantives is analo- 
gous to that of substantives originally German. Masculine 
and neuter substantives have the ancient form of declension : 
a great many masculine names of persons, however, which are 
adjective-substantives, or analogous to them, as well as femi- 
nine substantives, have the modern form of declension. The 
sign r is adopted in the plural of the neuter substantives, 
£ofpital, ©pital, i?amifot, Regiment, and $arlament: the vowel 
is modified in the plural only in the following; $lfct, $Wtftt, 
Sifdbof, @t;or, S&omi, .gofpital, ©pttal, £amtfol, $anat, Kaplan, 
tfarbinal, Softer, 2)?atfd&, Sftoraff, %ala% $a6(T, $vo6fr. In 
General and XrtStUtal the practice in this respect varies. 

Of masculine names of persons only the following have the 


ETYMOLOGY. 119 

ancient form throughout : $l6t, $afcjl, $V0&jI, $ifc|)of, 2)?ajor, 
s D?atabor, ©pion, patron, $?a£jijter, £>fft#er, and those ending 

in al, at, an, anev, and iner, taken from the Latin terminations 
alts, arius, anus, and inus ; e. g. ,£arbmal, 2?icat, 9?0tar, j?ap= 
(an, ^uritanev, 3af o&inef . The plural forms 2?tf awn, 9?otarien, 
^ommifTavien, however, are sometimes used. 

The following foreign substantives have the singular de- 
clined in the ancient, and the plural in the modern form : 

1.) The masculine names of persons having the unaccented 
termination OX ; e. g. 2>oftor, $rofeflbr. 

2.) The neuter adjective-substantives which have the termi- 
nation tit?, from the Latin tivum ,• e. g. ©ubjlantiv, $lbjectit>. 
— '2?omttttf, Oferitattt?, ^rebitif, however, and some others, have 
the plural also of the ancient form. 

3.) Those neuter substantives of Latin origin, in which the 
Latin termination ium has been either retained or dropped ; 
e. g. ©tubtum, (£vax\$diim\, and $lb w6, $avt$p, $rin$tp ; and 
many neuter adjective-substantives which have the terminations 
a( and i(, from the Latin ale and He ; e. g. Capital, 0?e#al, 
^Bacfcanat, Soffit. They all have retained the vowel i in the 
termination of the plural number ; e. g. ©tubmen, $lbt>et6=ten, 
ftapttalnen, $opUen. The same applies to j?urialten, fftatum-- 
lien, $?0&iliett, and some others, which are used only in the 
plural number. 

4.) The masculine substantives, ^aWOU, Siamant, $afatt, 
tfapatm, 3«tpoj?, £onfut, duffel, ^antojfet, $rafeft, $falm, 

diubiu, ©taat, Ztyxox), Xraftat; and the neuter substantives, 

3nfeft, $ronom, ©tatut, 2?er6. The substantives 9lfpeften and 
©^cpaftCH, marriage-contract, are used only in the plural 
number, which has also the modern form of declension. 

Masculine and neuter substantives, adopted from modern 
languages, for the most part retain the sign $ in the plural 
number; e.g. @eme'3, gonts, 2oM, ^ubbtn^^, ©olo'$, j?a= 
jmo^. 

All feminine substantives, and a great many masculine 
names of persons, which are adjective-substantives, or analo- 
gous to them, have the singular and plural numbers declined 
in the modern form. Such are, in particular, all names of 
persons which have the terminations at, ant, ent, if, from the 


120 ETYMOLOGY. 

Latin atus, ans, ens, icus ,- and aft, ift, ojr, et, it, Ot, and e ; e.g. 
2fct>ocat,$ralat, ^vcteftant, ©tubent, Client, jfat&offl* ^antaft, 
SJfet&ottft ©taroft $oct, 3cfuit, jbiot, (flese, 2?a0a6roit>c, 2fo* 
tipobe; — the compounds of the Greek \6yo$, <ro<p6$, vo[ao$, &c. ; 
e. g. X(koIo& Wlofopk 5lfhcnom, 2)ema#o#, ©eo^rapl?, $a= 
triardb, 2lnu}ropopi;a#, and Spmnn. The substantives, (? levant, 
£otifonant, Quabratit, Quotient, Sufat, planet, hornet, though 
not names of persons, on account of the analogy of their form 
also take the modern form of declension. 

Observation.— The sign of the dative case, e, is more frequently dropped 
in foreign substantives, than in substantives originally German (§ 108). 

Some foreign substantives, which have their original form unaltered, 
are not declined in the singular number, e. g. $afU6, £(ertl0; or assume 
only the sign of the genitive case $, e. g. be$ ^nbtPtbuum^, be£ $aftum£. 
They retain in all cases of the plural number the original form of the 
nominative plural, e. g. £afu$, Sftobt, #afta, $ata ; or assume in the plural 
the German termination en; e.g. bie ^nbiftbuen, bie #aften. 

Declension of Proper Names. 

§ 114. 

When proper names of persons are used in the plural 
number, they are declined as common names ; viz. those of 
male persons in the ancient form, and those of females in the 
modern; e.g. tie .geitmdbe, bie 3Rarten. In the singular 
number, names of males, and those of females which have 
not the termination e, have only the genitive case pointed 
out by the sign £ ; e.g. .getmidbS, ©ftfa&etfj& The names of 
females with the termination e, take ett$ in the genitive, and en 
in the dative and accusative cases ; e. g. — 

N. SRatffc G. ajforieiri, D. & A. SWarien. 

Caroline, £aroftnen& Yardmen. 

Those names of males, the final sound of which is an £, 
§, fcfr, or Xi ov fo also take the sign t\\§ in the genitive case; 
e. g. 2?0{Nn$, %StCLptx& 9 %X\% en& Foreign names which have 
the unaccented terminations a$, c£, i$, U$, admit of no sign of 
declension ; and all cases of proper names, which cannot be 
marked by inflection, are denoted by the definite article (§ 103); 
e. g. bc$ glia£, be$ 3EerjN$, ber Sori^, bem ^(atc 


ETYMOLOGY. 121 

Proper names of countries and places, like names of per- 
sons, have only the genitive marked by the sign $ ; e. g. 2£iett$, 
2}evlin& When a final 3, f?, £, or 3, does not permit the sign 
of the genitive case to be assumed, or whenever another case 
is to be distinguished, the proper name is placed in apposition 
to a common name; e.g. bet ©tabt Wlait\fo bet 2?efrmi# ©dErtVeib* 
m& bent RMgnitf) ©panien. 


Chapter III. — Of Adjectives. 

§115. 
Adjectives are either primary (§ 35) or secondary derivatives 
(§ 49, 50, 51); the latter including participles (§ 77), and 
adverbs of manner used adjectively {% 52). In general all 
adjectives may be employed both as predicative adjectives, 
e. g. bet* $etttb tjt fu?dbt6ar, the enemy is dreadful, and as attri- 
butive adjectives, e. g. bet 4 futdbtfcare ^eittb, the dreadful enemy 
(| 7). The following adjectives however are used only in the 
predicative relation : fcevett, ready; fehtb, hostile; $at, made, 
done ; #att£e lltlb #e&C, current ; eil1#ebettf, remembering ; $is 
fjag, hating ; gettojr, of good cheer ; Qtam, bearing hatred ; 
ifte, wrong, astray ; fltttb, known ; (eib, distressing ; tiug, use- 
ful ; and a few more (id) bin 6crctt, er ijt ntir feittb, &c.) Some 
adjectives, on the other hand, can only be placed in the attri- 
butive relation : these are, the superlatives of adjectives; the 
secondary derivatives made by the affix en (§ 49), e. g. #oibett, 
golden ; the adjective names of nations, e. g. Seittfdb, (i tt#lifdb, 
^rcm^bjifcfr ; and many other secondary derivatives made by 
the affixes ifcb and licb (§ 50, 52), e. g. bte&tfdb, thievish ; f)eucfc 
lerifcfs hypocritical ; raitfcevtfcl), rapacious ; ttorbifcj), northern ; 
anf att$licfr, original ; ttac()tlidb, nightly ; jta^rlicfj, annual ; tafr 
Ud), daily ; eiblidb, deposed upon oath ; ttttittbltdb, oral ; VOOXb 
lic|), verbal ; ordinal numerals, and the adjectives bortig, 0&t#, 
^ejlri^, ^eutig, jegi^, made from the adverbs bott, there ; often, 
above; #ej!ent, yesterday; (jettte, today; je$t, now; (btefdbbnffe 
Stau, eiti solbner 3?in£, bk bie&ifcfre (?ljfer, ber britte Zag, bk 
jte$^e Beit :)~ See § 158. 


122 


ETYMOLOGY. 


§ 116. 

In the attributive adjective, the gender, number, and case 
of the substantive referred to are expressed by the declension 
of the adjective. The same applies also to adjectives used 
substantively (§ 7); e. g. m\ ©ele^ttet, a learned man; einc 
©eiefjtte, a learned woman; etWf (Meljrten, of a learned 
woman: tin Seutfdber, a German; eine ^etttfcfje, a German 
woman. 

The predicative adjective admits of no inflection ; e. g. bte 
grew ifr gele£>rt. 

Adjectives, like substantives (§ 106), have two forms of de- 
clension, viz. the ancient and the modern ; all adjectives being 
susceptible of both forms. 

In general, an adjective standing alone before a substantive 
takes the ancient form of declension ; when, on the other hand, 
it is preceded by an article or pronoun declined after the ancient 
form, the adjective takes the modern form. The principles of 
this practice, and the exceptions to which it is subject, are ex- 
plained in the Syntax (§ 170). The ancient form of declension 
presents a greater variety of terminations than the modern, as 
may be seen by the following paradigm : 




Ancient form. 



< 

masc. 

Singular. 


Plural, 
in all genders, 


fern. 

neut. 

N. 
G. 
D. 
Ac. 

gutter gnu 
gnU$ (en) gut-ct 
gnUm gutter 
gut-en gut=e 

gut=e3 
gttt-e$ (en) 
gufcem 
gnU$ 

gnu 
gnUx 
gnUxx 
gnu. 



Modem form. 




Singular. 


Plural. 



^v 


in all genders. 


<■ ■ 

masc. 

fem. 

neut. 

N. 
G. 
D. 

Ac. 

gnu 
gufcen 
gufcen 
gufcen 

gut=e 
gufcen 
gufcen 
gut=e 

gnu 
gnUn 
gufcen 
qnu 

gnUn 
gnUn 
gut-en 
gnUn. 


ETYMOLOGY. 123 

The gen. sing. masc. and neut. in the ancient form, almost 
always takes the sign en of the modern form instead of e$, 
which properly belongs to it; e. g. rotten 2Beine3, of red 
wine; frifcjKtt 2?robe3, of new bread; fatten Sfe#1f% of cold 
water. The termination of the ancient form has been retained 
only in some expressions; e.g. #Ute# 2)?lttfje$ fetn, to be in 
good spirits; $erabe3 2£e#e$, straitway ; £euti#e$ 2a$e$, now- 
a-days. 

When adjectives with one of the unaccented terminations 
er, el, en, as ebel, efcen, Bitter (§ 35), are inflected, the vowel 
C in those terminations is commonly dropped for the sake of 
eurythmy (§17); e.g. em ebler SDtomt, a magnanimous man; 
em ihmx %8tg 9 a flat road ; fctttre 3)?anMn, bitter almonds. 

Comparison of Adjectives. 

§117. 

There are in German, as in English, two forms of com- 
parison, — viz. the simple comparison, e. g. in vein, retner, ber 
reittff e, pure, purer, the purest ; and the compound comparison, 
e. g. in $IM lid), ttte^r glM lidb, Ijbcfrjt ^lucfltdb, fortunate, more 
fortunate, most fortunate. The simple comparison is made 
by the termination er for the comparative, and eft for the 
superlative degree. In the termination of the superlative 
degree, eurythmy requires the vowel e to be dropped when 
the final sound of the adjective is not a lingual consonant (b, 
t, 3? % fdb, b (t) ; e. g. fcfronfter, the finest, instead of fdbbmejf *er ; 
lie6(?er, the dearest, instead of liefcejfcer : but on the other hand, 
Brett efrer, the broadest; fug e per, the sweetest; ftu^effer, the 
shortest. In participles, however, which have the unaccented 
termination et or enb, the vowel e is also omitted ; e. g. ber #e= 
6t(bet(?e, the most accomplished ; ber ret^enbffe, the most charm- 
ing : and the practice is variable in adjectives, the final sound 
of which is a vowel or a double liquid consonant ; e. g. frei, 
free; frof), happy; bimn, thin; soil, full; jtarr, stiff. 

In the comparative degree of those adjectives which have 
one of the unaccented terminations el, er, en (§ 35), the vowel 
of that termination is commonly dropped as in their declen- 
sion (§116); e.g. ebler, Bittrer, eBner. 


124 


ETYMOLOGY. 


The vowels a, 0, and u, are modified in the comparative 
and superlative degree of those adjectives which are primary 
derivatives (§ 35) ; e. g. in jrmf, strong, jtavfer, bit ftarf|re ; 
fromm, pious, frbmmer, bit frbmmfre; flu#, wise, f litter, ber 
flu#f?e. The following however are exceptions : 

Bunt, speckled. laljm, lame. fcWaff, slack. 

fal6, fallow. (af , tired. fdtfatlf, slender. 

fabe, insipid. lofe, loose. fcfrroff, rough. 

fTadj, flat. matt, wearied. jfait, stiff. 

ftofa merry. platt, flat. frol^, proud. 

Qitdbi, straight. plump, clumsy. ffraff, stiff, 

glatt, smooth. ro£, raw. ftumm, dumb. 

$0% hollow. UUlb, round. ffltmpf, blunt. 

{)olb, favourable. facjrt, slow. toll, mad. 

fa% bald. fanft, soft. t?oll, full. 

fmpp 9 narrow. fatt, satisfied. JftfW) tame. 
far& stingy. 

As also those which have the diphthong an ; e. g. wufy 9 rough ; 
tattfc, deaf. Practice is variable with regard to 6laj?, pale, and 
#eftwb, sound. The adjectives falfcfe (faktfdb), false, and morfcfr, 
(mot^tfcb), mellow, are secondary derivatives, and therefore their 
vowel is not modified. 

The following forms of comparison are defective or irregu- 
lar : — efjet, earlier ; bit itfki, the first ; from the obsolete adjec- 
tive efj, Engl, ere (ear in early) ; — ttttnber, less ; bit mmbefre, 
the least ; from the obsolete mill ; — bit le£te, the last ; from 
the obsolete lat (Engl. late). 33e(]et, better, ber Bejre, the best; 
and me^V, more, bit meljrfk or meifre, the most ; formed from 
the obsolete 6aj? and me(}, are employed as degrees of com- 
parison of qut, good, and tftel, much, .god), high, makes com- 
parative (jo^ef : tta^e, nigh, near, has superlative bit nadbfte. 

The adjectives, aa§er, outer; inner, inner; tforber, fore; 
^intet, hind ; o6er, upper ; miter, under ; form only the super- 
latives, bit auj?er|re, mnerffe, twrberjte, |>iMerfre, ofcerfre, unterfre, 
extreme, innermost, foremost, hindermost. The superlatives, 
bit erfre, the first, and bet le$te, the last, make the new compara- 
tive forms erfferer and lifytitit, which in their signification cor- 
respond to the English former and latter ; and the com para- 


ETYMOLOGY. 125 

tive nte^t forms another comparative, mefrfere, which is used 
only in the plural number, and employed as an indefinite 
numeral in the signification of the English several. 

Comparatives and superlatives are declined like other ad- 
jectives. 

§ 118. 

In the compound form of comparison, the comparative is, 
as in English, formed by nte|)r, more, and the superlative 
by am me^rfien (metfren), most, or by jjodbfj, highest ; e. g. 
gelefjtt, me^r ^ele^rt, ant meifren or ^bdbfj select. Originally 
the simple form of comparison was for the most part applied 
to primary, and the compound to secondary derivatives, as is 
the case in English : but now the simple form is commonly 
applied to secondary derivatives also ; e. g. QlMlifytX, ftl\d)U 
bam, bit #lu<flicbj}e, ber fmcfct6arj?e, more, the most, fortunate, 
fruitful. In adjectives, however, formed by the affix ifcj), this 
form is avoided, being offensive to eurythmy. 

In the superlative degree the simple and compound forms 
serve to distinguish a difference of signification ; the simple 
form being employed to express the superlative of comparison, 
— e. g. ber ttud[)ti#jle Wla\m ittt Ccmfce, the most important man 
in the country; ba$ langWCttt^ffe fBud), the most tiresome 
book (of any) ; — while the compound form denotes the super- 
lative of eminence, e. g. tie ^bcj)(r Widbtt^e Stfadbttdbt, the very 
important news; eitie j)bcf)ff lai1#tt?dlt#e ©efeUfc&aft, a most 
tiresome company. The simple form, therefore, never occurs 
after an indefinite article. 


Chapter IV. — Of Pronouns. 

§ 119. 
Pronouns are words which indicate persons and things only 
as they are related to the person who speaks, without expressing 
their notion (§8, 10). Thus the sentence, I (the speaker) will 
introduce you (the person spoken to) to him (the person spoken 


126' ETYMOLOGY. 

of), distinguishes merely the relations of /, you, and he, without 
saying who /, you, and he are. Those pronouns by which 
only the relation of personality, (i. e. of the person speaking, 
spoken to, or spoken of,) is expressed, are termed personal 
pronouns. Demonstrative pronouns, again, are those which, 
in a person or thing spoken of, express not only the relation 
of personality, but a demonstrative relation, i. e. a relation 
either to the speaker, or to another notion, establishing a 
distinction from other persons or things ; e. g. that (the thing 
meant or pointed at by the speaker) is beautiful ; those who 
took physic recovered. Interrogative pronouns are those by 
which the demonstrative relation of a person or thing is 
asked ; e. g. what is beautiful ? who recovered ? When the 
demonstrative relation of a person or thing refers to another 
notion (those, who took physic, recovered), the notion referred 
to is always expressed by an accessory sentence (who took 
physic), which is connected with the principal sentence (those 
recovered) by means of an interrogative pronoun (who) ; which 
in that case is termed a relative pronoun # . 

Personal, demonstrative, interrogative, and relative pro- 
nouns, thus applied to persons or things, are termed substan- 
tive-pronouns ; e. g. he told me ; who is there ? When, on 
the other hand, they at the same time express an attributive 
relation to another substantive, they are termed adjective-xwo- 
nouns ; e. g. his father (the father of him) ; this book. They 
are adverbial pronouns, when they at the same time express a 
relation of place, of time, or of manner ; e. g. he lives here, or 
there ; when did you see him ? thus he spoke. From personal 
pronouns, however, no adverbial pronouns can be made. 

Besides the pronouns now enumerated, which take their 
origin from variations of the personal pronouns, there are 
some words, as some, none, which also express persons or 
things in an indefinite manner, without giving their notions : 
these are termed indefinite pronouns. 


5. ©rimm 2k>utfcf>e ©unmmnt. 1 3fojl. 1 25. p. 307, 


ETYMOLOGY. 127 

1» Personal Pronouns, 

a. Substantive Personal Pronouns. 

§120. 
The German substantive personal pronouns are, i#, I; 
t>U, thou ; er, he ; jie, she ; e$, it. They are declined as follows: 

Singular. 
1. 2. 3. 


N. i#, I, tol, thou, er, he; fie, she, eg, it, 

G. meiner,ofme, fc>einer,ofthee, fetner,ofhim, t^ver,ofher, feine^ofit, 

D. mir, to me, Mr, to thee, i&m, to him, ifcr, to her, i&m, to it, 

Ac. micfc, me. bid), thee. i&n,him. fie, her. e^, it. 

Plural. 

1. 2. 3. 

N. wir, we, ifjr, you, fie, they, 

G. unfer, ofus, euer, of you, i^rer, of them, 

D. unS, to us, eu#, to you, i&nen, to them, 

Ac. un£, us. eu#, you. fie, them. 

In the place of the genitive mdner, t>etwr, fetner, the obso- 
lete forms mem, fceitt, fein, are sometimes employed ; e. g. vtU 
#ij? mem mcfjt, forget me not ; ^efrenfe mem, remember me*. 

The forms of the genitive case, meim3, bettie$, feim$, Utlfete^, 
eure$, $re$, occur only in the expressions compounded with 
#letdben ; e. g. meme$ gleicfcen, my equals ; fcme^ #leic&en, his 

equals f. 

Personal pronouns are reflective, if the person or thing de- 
noted by the pronoun is the same with the subject of the sen- 
tence ; e. g. id) ftette midb, I dress myself; t>U Uu)mejt bid), 
thou praisest thyself. In the dative and accusative cases of 
the third personal pronoun, the reflexive signification is always 
pointed out by the reflexive pronoun flcj) (Lat. sibi 9 se, himself, 
herself, itself, themselves), which stands for the dative and 


* @d)onet me in.. Sch. 

2>enft et nod) mein? Sch. 

2Birb fein bet 33(i£ nicfyt fcfyonen ? Schlegel. 

@ute 23otf)fdHt f)<met b e i n. Sch. 
t 50er in bet Committee ift me in eg gfeicfyen? 9?tir ^tfttigefmbmeine^eerS. Sch. 

5Bcrorbnet tft, bag jeber 2lna,ef(a<jte burrf) ©efdjtvorne yon feineS gfcid)en foil 
geticfytet werben. £c/t. 


128 ETYMOLOGY. 

accusative cases singular and plural in all genders ; e. g. it ijl 
fidb bet twdbfre,he is nearest to himself; jie lo&t fid), she praises 
herself; jie fcefcbtmpfen ficfr, they disgrace themselves. The 
genitives feiner and \l)m are employed both in the reflexive 
and in the not reflexive sense: er (|ie) i(? feinet (itym) lingi* 
benf, may mean both 'he (she) remembers himself (herself),' 
and also * he (she) remembers him (her),' i. e. another person. 

In the plural number the reflective pronouns are frequently 
employed in a reciprocal signification (§ 65). In order, how- 
ever, to distinguish the reciprocal from the reflexive significa- 
tion, the adverb eitWuber, one another, is added to the reflexive 
pronoun, or used instead of it; e. g. jie Befcfumpfetl (id) iiw 
atlber, or jie fcefcfrimpfetl einanber, they disgrace one an- 
other; tyx femiet e in an bet 4 , you know one another. 

§121. 

Till within some centuries the Germans, like the French 
and the English, addressed each other in familiar conversa- 
tion by the second person singular, and in formal intercourse 
by the second person plural. Since that period another mode 
of address has been adopted, as expressive of respect, viz. by 
the third person plural (jie), whilst inferiors were and still are 
addressed in the third person singular (et, jie). 

Although the Germans adopted these modern forms, they 
still retained the ancient form : there exists, therefore, a con- 
siderable variety in accommodating the mode of address to the 
different relations of superiority, inferiority, friendship, and 
love. The use of the third personal pronoun in the plural, jie, 
is generally received in the polite conversation of people of 
education ; and even inferiors, if not in dependence on the 
speaker, would be offended if otherwise addressed. The 
second personal pronoun in the plural, iljr, is usual among 
peasants and other people of lower condition, and is never used 
by others except in addressing persons of that description. 
This practice is, however, more common in the country than 
in towns. The third personal pronoun in the singular, er for 
male and jie for female persons, is used only in addressing 
inferiors, particularly servants and others, who are dependent 
upon the speaker : it is also employed by the country people 


ETYMOLOGY. 129 

of some German provinces in speaking to one another. Being 
considered however as indicating a want of respect, this mode 
of address should scarcely ever be used. The natural address, 
Sllj is much more usual at the present day in German than 
in other modern languages. As it excludes all ceremonious 
formality, it is reserved for relations of confidence, friendship, 
and love. We use it in addressing our family^ our best friends, 
and the Supreme Being *. 

Observation. — In addressing a person in writing, we always give a capital 
letter to the pronoun, personal or possessive, referring to that person ; e.g. 
ici) bine @ie CDicfc, @uc&) urn 3^re 02)eine, (Sucre) #veunbf#aft, I beg for 
your friendship. 

§ 122. 
The third personal pronoun in the neuter gender, when it 
expresses the notion of a thing, is used only in the accusative 
case (e$) ; and in the other cases a demonstrative pronoun 

stands in place of it; e. g. id) Bebatf befTett (be3 (Mbes) nic|)t, 

I am not in want of it (the money); id) fatm bam it tlic|)t3 
madbett, I can do nothing nxtith it. The cases fetner, t£m, 
are consequently employed only when a person is understood. 

From the definite pronoun e£, which represents a definite 
person or thing,— e. g. e£ (0d$ j?mb) fcfemet, e£ (bdv (Mb) 
glcin^t, — the indefinite pronoun e$ must be distinguished, which 
implies the notion of a thing in the most general and indefinite 
sense; e. g. e$ rennet, it rains; e£ tturb ^Ctait^t, they are dan- 
cing (§ 67). The use of this indefinite pronoun ix> is more 
extensive in German than in English ; and it is frequently 
applied even to notions of persons, not only without regard to 
gender,— e. g. e3 tjt bet %U$, it is the physician ; e$ if? nteme 
Gutter, it is my mother, — but even when they are in the 
plural; e. g. e$ fmb Srcttt^ofen, they are Frenchmen f. 

The pronoun e$ is frequently contracted, for the sake of 
eurythmy, with other words standing before it ; and the omis- 
sion of the vowel e is then marked by an apostrophe (') ; e. g. 
#t6'3 mit, give it me ; mrom'3 £tn, take it. This contraction 

* Schiller makes Don Carlos say to his friend Posa, " %>d) eine tBitte : Gentle 
mid) £>u. 3d) fyaU Detne$£)(eid)en (lets 6enei&et urn DtefeS 9Sorred)t &er SBectHU«ftd)feit." 
t (? $ ftnb nid)t efcen f d) ( e d) t e 9fl n n n e r. Sch. 

K 


130 ETYMOLOGY. 

is commonly made use of when e£ is preceded or followed by 
other unaccented syllables ; e.g. in ift' 3 #CttMg? is it certain? 
l;a(l bu'$ #efe(Kll? have you seen it? ev Jj at' ^ mir gefagt, he 
told it to me (§ 1 7). 

h. Adjective Personal Pronouns (Possessive Pronouns). 

§123. 

From the genitive case singular and plural of each substan- 
tive personal pronoun (§ 120), a corresponding adjective-pro- 
noun is formed ; so that there are in German the following 
adjective personal (or possessive) pronouns : metn, my ; bim, 
thy; fem, his, its; t^r, her; unfer, our; euer, your; $r, their. 

They are inflected like other adjectives (§116); e. g. ntcin?$ 
2?ater3, of my father ; betmr 53?Utter, of thy mother ; with this 
peculiarity, that in the nom. sing. masc. and neut., and in the 
ace. neut., the termination of inflection (er, e$) is dropped ; 
e. g. mem 2?ater, bein $au$. It is retained, however, when 
these possessive pronouns, like other adjectives, are used sub- 
stantively (§ 7); e. g. mem .gut ift wi§, betnev ift fcfywavfa imb 
bet fetne ifi grim, my hat is white, thine is black, and his is 
green; mem j?inb iff franf, ba$ betne imb it)vz$ tft gefmib, 
my child is ill, thine and hers are in good health *". 

When the possessive pronouns are to be used substantively, 
they frequently assume the termination ig (§ 49) ; e. g. memig, 
beim#, fetmg, tmfvt$, eurtg, il)Xig ; in which case they always 
take the definite article, and are consequently declined in the 

modern form (§ 116); e. g. mmm mem 3)?efTer, bu. fwft ba$ 
betmge t?erbten, tmb id) Bebavf be$ met nig en tiicfrt, take my 
knife, you have lost yours, and I do not want mine. 

2. Demonstrative Pronouns. 

a. Substantive Demonstrative Pronouns. 

§ 124. 

The demonstrative pronoun, ber, bU, b(t$, originally has the 

value of substantive-pronouns (§ 119), which however it has 

* SQet bu nud) 6 ift, fjinf ort roirft bu bet Unfre fein. Sch. 

©ie aite gefyen ii)xe& 5Be<}e$ fort <in tf>r ©efefycift— 9J?e in e£ ift ber 9ftocb. £c/j* 


ETYMOLOGY. 131 

in English retained only in the neuter gender, that; e. g. that 
is copper, ba$ ift Rupfit; the German masculine and feminine 
substantive-pronouns, bet, bte, being supplied in English by the 
substantive personal pronouns, he and she,- e. g. idb wetnte b c IT, 
I meant him; ber, iKkfjer flttg Jmnbelt, tferbient £06, he who 
acts wisely deserves praise; bte wlcfce bit fudf)C(r if! ntc&t Ijier, 
s^£ whom you seek is not here. The pronoun ber, bk, bd$, 
is however also used adjectively, and then corresponds to the 
English adjective-pronouns that, this, these, those; e.g. ber 
33aum tra#t feme Srrucfrt, that (or this) tree bears no fruit ; bet 4 
33aum, wldber feme Srttcfrt tra#t, that tree which, &c The 
demonstrative pronoun ber, bk, ba$, is moreover employed as 
a relative pronoun (see § 1 30). 

Originally the pronouns bet, bk 9 b&$ 9 had throughout the 
ancient form of inflection, which has been retained when it 
performs the office of the definite article (§ 100). The com- 
pound adverbs bitycdb, be^SKgen, therefore ; and be$Cjleicfjeu, 
like that ; ber$leicf)ettj like those ; are remains of this form of 
inflection, which now is applied only when the pronoun is 
used adjectively; e. g. id) erinmre ttticb be$ Xa#e$, I remember 
that day; id) traue bem $?enfcf)en mcfct, I do not trust that 
man. When, on the other hand, it is employed as a substan- 
tive demonstrative, or as a relative pronoun, the gen. sing. 
masc. and neut. is beffen, fern, beren ; the gen. plur. beren, and 
dat. plur. benen; e.g. id) erinnere mid) be (fen, I recollect that; 
id) erinnere mid) beveti ntdbt, I do not recollect those ; 3)?amier, 
beren Stamen tmj!er6lic!) jinb, men whose names are immortal; 
id) traue ben en ntcfrt, bie jebero #efalten roollen, I do not trust 

those who wish to please every body. When the substantive 
demonstrative pronoun refers to an adjective sentence follow- 
ing, it has gen. plur. beret; e. g. metbe ben Um#cmg berer welcfre 
bit fcfmteicfreln, es $i&t beren tnele, avoid the conversation of 
those who flatter you, there are many of them. However, 
in the substantive demonstrative pronoun the gen. sing, beg is 
also used ; e. g. Wix ji'nb beg $enn|?, we are sure of that. 

§ 125. 
X)er, bk, ba$, used as a substantive demonstrative pronoun, 
has a very general and indefinite signification; ber and bk 

k 2 


132 ETYMOLOGY. 

being limited to notions of persons, whilst bd$ expresses the 
notions' of things; e. g. btX ift franf, that man is ill; bit ift 
fd)CH, that woman is handsome : ba§ ift ©olb, that is gold ; 
id) t&tte ba$ Wa$ mix QtfixlU, I do what I like. The demon- 
strative ba$, like the indefinite pronoun e$ {§ 122), comes to 
be applied even to the notions of persons, without regard to 
gender and number; e. g. ba$ ift em %jiQflfflW 9 that is a gipsy; 
ba$ fmb meine ©cfnreftem, these are my sisters; bd$ fmb &d= 
fet, these are beetles *. 

When the substantive demonstrative pronoun bd$ is con- 
nected with a preposition, it assumes the shape of the adverb 
ba (bar), there, and is contracted with the preposition into the 
forms batan, thereupon ; bat? OH, thereof; baft.it, therefore, &c. 
(see § 128) ; e. g. batan fyabi id) nid)t #ebac{)t, I did not think 
of that ; b a V n tvetj? id) dlid)\$, of that I know nothing ; id; 
fitrc&te mid) bat? or, I am afraid of that; tdb 6tn bam it ^ufric= 
ben? I am satisfied with that. These compound forms have 
the same indefinite signification as the substantive-pronoun 
ba§, from which they are made, and are employed especially 
in order to denote an indefinite notion expressed by an acces- 
sory substantive sentence; e. g. \t>a§ bu fag ft, bat>0tt ttmj? id) 
t)id)t$, I know nothing of what you say; betlfe batan, ba$ bu 
nidbt meljte in Rinb 6ift, consider that you are no more a 

child; foro,e bafitr, bag jebet fein Zi)til etl;alte, take care that 

each may have his share (see § 193). 

The substantive demonstrative pronoun btX 9 bit) ba$, and 
the compound forms baxan, baxau$, babti, bafitt, bat> on, &c. 
are generally used in place of the third personal pronoun er, 
fte, e$, in the genitive and dative cases ; or connected with 
prepositions, when notions of things, especially of materials, 
and abstract notions, are referred to ; e. g. et 6ot tttit (Belb an, 
a6et id) Oebatf beffcn rticbt, he offered me money, but I am not 
in want of it; #t6 i\)\t\ ^Bein, Ct Bebatf beffcn, give him wine, 
he is in want of it; et fammelt ©eroalbe, unb et £at be ten 
t?iele $efauft, he collects pictures, and he has purchased many 


* SrtS ift beine £ixf)ter. Sch. 
2) a 6 ift ein Jeiger. Sch. 
Dai finb meine 9?id)ter. Sch. 


ETYMOLOGY. 133 

(of them); et 4 fyridbt ttoti bet 4 3)?uftf, Ijat after feitten ©efdfmtacf 

baran, he talks of music, but has no taste for it*. 

Notions of persons cannot be expressed in this manner : we 
say, id) ft'nbe ettien $reunb an tEjm (and not bat 4 an), I find a 

friend in him: only the genitive be (Jen, be ten? is sometimes 
used for the sake of perspicuity in place of the possessive 
pronoun feut and tf)r, even when persons and not things are 
referred to ; because the repetition of these pronouns, which, 
like the personal pronouns feinet 4 and H)ttY, are used both with 
and without a reflexive signification, would sometimes produce 
an ambiguity of expression ; e. g. et 4 fcefcfcenfte feinen QSettet 4 Ittlb 
beffetl ©0^11, he presented his cousin and his (the cousin's) 

son; (t'e Befcfrenfte iljve ©dbwejlet 4 unb be vert (not tint) Xodbter, 
she made presents to her sister and to her (the sister's) 
daughter. 

The demonstrative relation being a more definite one than 
mere personal relation (§ 119), a greater stress of accentuation 
is generally laid upon the demonstrative pronoun bet 4 , bte, ba§, 
than upon the corresponding personal pronouns et 4 , fie, C$. 
When, however, the demonstrative pronoun performs the 
office of the definite article (§ 100), it is unaccented; and, for 
the sake of eurythmy, the definite article is frequently con- 
tracted with monosyllabic prepositions (§ 17). Thus $)&$ is 

contracted with an, in, auf, burd), fur, vot, urn, into an$, in$, 
auf§, burdbS, fur$, vox*, umS; bem with an, in, 6ei, von, %u, 
into am, tm, 6emt, uom, ^unt ; and bet 4 with ^u into ^trr. The 
contractions ubev3, ttnter£, itBerm, nntevtn, Ijintevro, vcvm, are 
offensive to euphony and therefore improper. 

§ 126. 

The demonstrative relation implied by the pronoun bet 4 , bte, 
ba$, is expressed in a more definite way by the compound 

demonstrative pronouns betfelfce, btefel6e, baffel6e, and berjent^e, 
btejem$e, ba3jeni#e. In each of them, both components are 

* ©etne @tiu)(e nxwen matt, nfeer ex fttb tag(idf) 3em<wben ein bn rn u f su ft^ert. G'dthe. 

2Bo nefymen tuit ein spferb f>er? 5Qtr tuetben nid)t fange bncnnrf) fucfyen. Gb7/«e. 

©o fd)etif)(ift bte SBcje&entyrit fcfyien, fo wnrcn bte ©ettfld&tungen brtbet bocfy jit 
emftfjnft. GofAe. 

Qt fjfttte fetn 93ermogen (je(tenb genicicfyt; einen Xfyert buy on fjatte et in bie £nnb* 
<ung gegefren. GW*e. 


134? ETYMOLOGY. 

inflected ; the first component, bet*, Me, ba$ 9 taking the inflec- 
tion of the definite article (§ 100) ; and the other component, 
fc(6c and jem#e, that of adjectives in the modern form (§ 116). 
Both compound pronouns in the same way, as bet, fcie, bd$, 
are used substantively as well as adjectively ; e.g. berjertt$e, 
bet 2)?UtI} l)at, fomme, let him who has courage come ; id) tyaht 
baffelfce getfcan, \va$ er #et(jan i)at, I did the same that he 
did; and btejem^en Xj^teve, wlcke tm Staffer lefcen, those 
animals which live in water; berfelBe Qkb, bet mtdb 6e= 
ftO^letl fyat, the same thief who robbed me. Both of them 
imply a relation to a notion expressed by an accessory adjec- 
tive sentence ; bet jerii$e is generally employed when this rela- 
tion is to be pointed out; betfelBe, like the same in English, 
being reserved rather for the signification of exclusion ; e. g. 

berjem#e, ber btcfr 6ejtof)len (;at, ift fe&r fdblau, he who has 
robbed you is very cunning ; and berfel6e ber bid) 6efrol)len 
fmt, i)at and) mid) 6ejlol;ien, the same who robbed you (no 
other) has robbed me also; er l)at ba$jem#e flet&atl, WCi§ 
iX t|)ttrt mttgte, he has done that which he was obliged to do ; 

and er bat baffelfce getfjan, wa$ bu get&an l)a% he has done 

the same which you did (nothing else). Sefjenifle is used, 
especially in written language, instead of the adjective demon- 
strative bit ; because in writing, e. g. ber iD?enfcf>, that man, 
bk 20?enfc{)en, those men, the demonstrative pronoun cannot 
be distinguished from the definite article ber by means of 
accentuation. 

The compound demonstrative pronoun berfe(6e, like the 
simple demonstrative pronoun ber, is frequently employed in 
place of the third personal pronoun, and of the possessive 
pronouns fetn and i{)t (§' 125). This compound pronoun, 
pointing out persons or things in a more definite way than 
either the simple demonstrative or the third personal pro- 
noun, is employed especially when perspicuity requires that 
two subjects expressed in a preceding sentence should be 
accurately distinguished from one another. In this case ber; 
felBe is commonly applied to the subject last mentioned ; e. g. 

ber 2?ater fdrnefc fetrtem (goljme, berfel&e muffe nad) £onbon 

reifetl, the father wrote to his son, that he (the son) must go 

to London ; er fam mtt feinem 29mbcr mti fpradb von ben 9ln#e= 


ETYMOLOGY. 135 

Ufltttl)titett fceffelfcen, he came with his brother, and spoke 
about his (the brother's) affairs; fie fvxad) flOn iljrer Xcd)ter, 
unb er^al)lte mix von ben £eiben berfelben, she spoke of her 
daughter, and gave me an account of her (the daughter's) 
sufferings. 

The indeclinable word felfcfr, for which in popular language 
felBet is also used, is not, like the English self, employed to 
express a reflective relation (§ 1 20). It is generally added to 
substantives and substantive-pronouns, in order to express 
exclusion of another subject; e.g. bit $lt^t f el 6(1 iff fxcmf, 
the physician himself is a patient; iX farm ftct> fclSfJ nicf)t 
£elfen, he cannot cure even himself; id) fel6(i tydhi e3 getljan, 
I myself (no other person) have done it; fc>U fel&fi {Jafi e$ 
$efa$t, you yourself (no other person) have told it *. When 
felfcj? stands before the substantive or substantive-pronoun, 
and has the subordinate accent, it implies the same as even in 
English ; e. g. fel6# ber j?bm# fonnte ii)x\ nidbt retten, even the 
king was not able to save him; felfcfl feme $einbe fcenmnberten 

i^n, even his enemies admired him f . 

The adjective forms fel6ev, felSe, fel6e3j and fel6t^er 9 fdbiqc$ 
felbt$e$, the same, are now obsolete, 

b. Adjective Demonstrative Pronouns. 

§ 127. 

The adjective demonstrative pronouns biefef, btefe, biefe$, 
this, and jener, jene, jene$, that, agree in their inflection with 
other adjectives, and always take the ancient form, because 
they are never preceded by any article or other pronoun (§ 116). 
liefer is applied to those persons or things which are nearer 
to the speaker in point of time and of space : jener, on the 
other hand, to those which are more distant from the speaker; 
e.g. btefer .gut #ef>brt mix, tmb jener btr, this hat is mine, 
and that is yours; btefTett^ tmb jenfeitl be$ @trome& on 
this and on the other side of the river ; in b i e f C X Uttb ill j e 11 e X 


* 2)u felfrft mufst rirfjten, bit aiiein. Sch. 

3d) felbet fnnn fie retten. Sch. 

2)u \'tii>tt fottjl nnS frtgen tuns bu uocI>aff. Sch. 
f (?inen 93erf>fenbeten entbecf id?, ben f e t b ft be$ £<tge$ uoffes Stdjt md)t tyetfet. tfcA, 


1 36 ETYMOLOGY. 

2LMt, in this and in the other world; in btefem $lu#en6litfe 
ttnb an jenem Xa$C, in this moment and on that day (the last 
day of judgement). The English expression, the former and 
the latter^ are therefore commonly rendered in German by 
jener and btefev. 

The adjective-pronouns btefct and \iWiX are frequently used 
substantively, like other adjectives (§7); e.g. biefet* i\t jtm# 
imb jetUf tjt alt, this man is young and that man is old : but 
then we avoid the use of the genitive cases btefe3, jene?, btcfet, 
because they are easily confounded with other cases. 

The neuter pronoun biefe£ used substantively is, like the in- 
definite e$ (% 122) and the demonstrative bav (§125), frequently 
applied to the most general and indefinite notion of a subject, 
without distinction of gender and number ; and in this signi- 
fication the nominative and accusative biefe* are commonly 
contracted into bte3; e. g. bte$ tjl ehlC 9?cfe, this is a rose; 
bit$ ift eine ©acbe VOW ©tdfrtt^fett, this is a matter of import- 
ance; bie£ (tub arme £ettte, these are poor people. When the 
pronoun of the neuter gender t>iefe3, used substantively, and 
applied to notions of things, is to be connected with prepo- 
sitions, its .place is usually taken by the adverbial pronoun 
£ter (see § 128), which is contracted with the preposition into 
the forms l)kta\1, fykxai\$, ^tervon, jnevmtt, &c, analogous to 
the forms barcm, barati£, bason, &c (§ 125); e.g. JSteran 
eiferme id) il)\h by this (hereby) I know him; J}ieVU1 i)at IX 
0?ed)t, in this (herein) he is right; t)UYVCX\ Wetg id) 9?icf)ts, of 
this I know nothing; id) $Umi$e ii)n fyiiXmiX, I force him by 
this. 

The adjective demonstrative pronoun foldbet*, foldbc, foldbe^, 
(fo4tdb,) such, which is formed from the adverbial demonstra- 
tive pronoun fc, so, thus (see § 128), takes the adjective de- 
clension of either the ancient or the modern form, according 
as it either stands alone, or is preceded by an article in which 
the ancient form is expressed (§ 116) : it denotes the species 
or kind of persons or things. When it denotes a species con- 
sisting of individuals, it has before it the indefinite article; 

e. g. ein f o t db e> 3)?arm, such a man, eine3 fotdben 2)?arme£; 

tin foldbc^ $fcvb, such a horse: when, on the other hand, it 
denotes a species of materials or of abstract notions, it admits 


ETYMOLOGY. 137 

of no article; e.g. foldbcv vHktn, such wine; foldje 2)?ildb, 
such milk; fold)C 33efci)eibei]tjeit, such modesty. In the same 
way it stands without an article in the plural; e. g. foldK 
banner, gen. foldfrev SSfffrmer. When the article is taken, 
it may also be placed after the pronoun, as in English ; but 
in that case the termination of inflection is dropped in the 
pronoun; e. g. foldb cin 3)?eiifdb, fold) cine 3 3)?enfdben. The 
sign of inflection is sometimes dropped also, if standing before 
an adjective attributive; e.g. fold) gtpjje ©ittC, so great a 
kindness. 

c. Adverbial Demonstrative Pronouns. 

§128. 

The adverbial demonstrative pronouns (or demonstrative 
adverbs) are, ba, bott, there ; bami (bemi), then ; derived from 
fc ei <; — J)iev, here; Ijev, hither; tjin, thither (§ 139); derived 
from an obsolete demonstrative pronoun i)ix (Lat. hie) ; — and 
fo, so, thus ; formed from another obsolete demonstrative pro- 
noun (Gothic sa, Anglo-Saxon re). The adverb tyeitte, today, 
is also formed from the obsolete l)ix. .gter, |)Wj (K? 5 ba, bott, 
are adverbs of place; barm is an adverb of time; and fo an 
adverb, of manner. ®ann and fo however, like the English 
then, frequently imply a relation of causality ; e. g. tt?emi it C$ 

gefagt l;at, fo or bami muS e$ rvai)x fern, if he has said it, 
(then) it must be true. 

The adverbs bet, fw, l)iX, and (jin, are contracted with pre- 
positions into the forms baratt, thereon; bavatt$, therefrom; 
bartn, therein ; bat>on, thereof ; bafiir, for that ; i)kxa\\, hereon; 
Ijieraaf, hereupon ; |?iertn, herein ; (nefiir, for this ; l;emD, l)wauf, 
fymin, l;emu$, hither down, up, in, out ; f)ma6, (jinattf, (jinem, 
f)inau$, thither down, up, in, out (§ 125, 127). In ba the final 
X of its original form bciX is retained, whenever the initial of 
the preposition is a vowel ; e. g. in bavail, baritt : and in tykx 
the X is dropped, whenever the preposition has a consonant 
for its initial; e. g. in Ijiemtt, l)iebuvd>, l)iqil. The adverbs ba 
and l;(cr are also contracted with tyx and f)in into, — bcitytX, 
thence; bal;in, thither; l;icrl;cr, hither. 


138 ETYMOLOGY. 

3. Interrogative and Relative Pronouns. 

a. Substantive Interrogative and Relative Pronouns. 

§ 129. 
The substantive-pronouns JKV, who, and WCt$ 9 what, are, 
like the substantive demonstrative bcr, bic, ba$ (§ 125), applied 
only to the most general and indefinite notions : viz. ft Cf, to 
the notions of persons, without distinction of sex, and tt?a$ to 
the notions of things ; e. g. 2Ber tjl ba ? who is there? W a $ 
btixigft bit? what do you bring? Both pronouns on that 
account have no plural number. They are declined as fol- 
lows: — 


N. 

mv, 

\va§. 

G. 

rcefTen, 

iwflcn (nxg). 

1). 

mm. 


Ac. 

mn, 

wa$. 


%£a$ has no dative case ; and the obsolete genitive WZ$ has 
been preserved only in Wej?tt>eget1 and WCf?£>al6en, wherefore. 

2$er and \ya$ are used as relative pronouns (§ 119) only in 
the indefinite signification now mentioned; e. g. UKV ftiel^lt 
Slurb #eljan#t, he who steals is hanged ; n?Ct vid ^at, cjtBt ftel 
aits, he who possesses much spends much; id) JVClffr ttKH bit 
ttteinj?, I know whom you mean; tVCiv k6t, BctWgt [id), what 
lives, moves; id) Yotifjl tt>a$ OH ttnUji, I know what you wish 
for*. Wa$ however is, like bd$ {% 125), sometimes applied 
to persons also; e. g. wa§ ft'cf) fttcf)t, ft'nbet fid), those who seek 
one another will find one another f . When the relative pro- 
noun refers to a definite person or thing expressed by a pre- 
ceding substantive or substantive-pronoun, the pronouns tt?er 
and tva§ are never used; e. g. bev kwahz Welcfrer or bit (not 


* 20 et ^3ecf) nnriifyrt, befubcft fid) (a proverb). 
20 er einen £errn l)at, bien' i()m pfTicfytmnfug. SteA. 

2"0er fid) bee ftinbeS Jpauyt jum Stele feijte, bet fnnn mid) treffen in be$ £ets beS 
3einbe6. SfcA. 

233n 6 fetn mufj, bn^ gefd)ef)e. Sch. 
Snune loft, n>n$ Online fniipfte. Sch. 
20 <t$ end) genefytn tft, b<i$ i|T mir gered)t. Sch. 
f 20 n 6 fid) nod) jiingft in frlut'gem £<i<3 getrennt, bni? tfjcift ent&iirft bie nffgenifine 
2uft. SWi. 


ETYMOLOGY. 139 

wer) fptelt, the boy who plays; ba$ SBaffcr tt>el#e$ or ba§ 

(not \va$) id) tnnfCj the water which I drink. The relative 
pronoun \va$ is employed after the substantive demonstrative 

pronoun ba$ ; e.g. id) #e6e ba$, wa^ id) l;a6e, I give what 
(that which) I have; tcf) U?et§ nicfrtg fOtt bem, nm3 et fa#t, I 
know nothing of what (that which) he says. 2Fet, on the con- 
trary, never stands after the substantive-pronouns bet and bk; 

e. g. bet, welcfret or bet (not jt?et) frieplt, uutb ge&SnjJt, After 
the indefinite numerals alle3, etn>a£, ntancfre^, rucf)t£, ml, roe; 

nig (see § 136), the relative pronoun wa& is commonly used; 
e.g. mdbt alle^ tt?a^ ^lai^t i(? ©olb, every thing that glitters 

is not gold; fage mit (?twaS wa$ ntidb ttbfren fbrnie, tell me 

something which may comfort me; bet 2?ttef etltfyatt WetUg 
Ifa^ id) nidbt fcfeon ttjeif, the letter contains very little which I 
do not know already *. 

The substantive interrogative and relative pronoun JM$ is, 
like the substantive demonstrative pronoun b&3 (§ 125), always 
contracted with the prepositions into WOtMl, WOtttt, WOtfOtt, 
WCfiti, WO^lt, ttJOmtt, &c. wherein, whereof, wherefore, where- 
to, &c. In these the pronoun takes the shape of the adverb 
WO (see § 131), which moreover assumes t whenever the pre- 
position has a vowel for its initial; e. g. WOV Olt fpticfjt Ct? 
what does he speak of? WOXCm benfff bit? what do you think 
of? id) JVeig nidbt, WOJU e$ nti$t, I do not know what it is fit 
for. These forms, like baxat), battn, &c, are only applied to 
notions of things, and not to notions of persons (§ 125). 

In familiar intercourse \va§ is frequently employed instead 
of VOaVUm ; e. g. Wa$ fc[)la#ff bu micf) ? why do you beat me ? 
what do you beat me for f ? 

Observation. — The English pronouns whoever, whatever, whosoever, what- 
ever, whenever, &c. are rendered in German by VOtX tttimer, wa$ tltuner, 

wenn immer, &c. or by wev and), &c. (see § is9). 


* SMefeS Span* oerfmnmeft 2tt(eS, n> n $ mit tljeuer iff. Sc/*. 

9?td)tS febt, ma6 betne ^ofjett ntcfyt erfennt. tfc/e. 
f 2Bn3 bringt tyt und bn* bofe Seicfyen in tie griebenSgegenb ? 5Wi. 


140 ETYMOLOGY. 

b. Adjective Interrogative and Relative Pronouns. 

§ 130. 

The adjective-pronoun iKtc&er, ttxtcfje, Wtcfje3, like biefer, 
has the inflection of adjectives in the ancient form (§ 116). It 
is applied only to definite persons or things, which are either 
expressed, e. g. in WelcfKV 2!^t tft bet befte ? what physician 
is the best? welc()e3 %$l\d) Voillft bit lefetl ? which book do 
you wish to read ? fa#e ntir, UKlcfKV $lv£t bet Befte ijr, tell me 
what physician is the best ; facjc xait rcelcfre^ 33ud) bu lefen 
ttnllffj tell me which book will you read ; — or understood, the 
pronoun being then considered as an adjective used substan- 
tively, e. g. welcfjer (5h#) ift ber Bejre? which (of them) is the 
best? id) wilt bw ^t 5 welcfrcr (9tr$t) ber Befle iff, I wish to 

have the physician who (which physician) is the best. 

The genitive cases, nxldf)e$ and WeldKV, of the relative pro- 
noun, like those of the demonstrative btefe$, biefer (% 127), are 
not used substantively ; the genitives of the demonstrative 
pronoun (beffettj beren) being always employed instead of them ; 

e. g. ber 3£em beffen or bkSlatyxmiQ beven id) Bebarf, the wine 

or the food of which I am in want; ber 2D?ailtt, beffen @of)n 
(jejfovfccn iff, the man whose son died. 

The place of the adjective relative pronoun Weldber, used 
substantively, is frequently taken by the demonstrative pro- 
noun ber, bte, ba$ ; e. g. ber 2£ein ben id) ttinfe, the wine which I 
drink ; bk £uft bit id) attjttte, the air which I breathe *. This 
pronoun is always employed after substantive personal pro- 
nouns; e.g. tdb ber (not rcetdber) id) alter Bin, I who am older; 
tljr bte (not nMcf)e) \\>X \\XX\Q feib, you who are young f : (comp. 
§ 124.) 

In the compound adjective interrogative pronoun yoa& fur 
ciner, only the pronoun eiiiev is inflected (see § 132) : einer how- 
ever is omitted before names of materials and before substan- 


* 2$el)e bem 9)?orber, bet bnfyin gefyt in tf)orid)tem 9ftut(). Sch. 

2>runten ft^en ber Xl)emi$ £i?d)ter, bie nie uergeffen, bte Untrugarfjeti, bie mit 
&cx(d}tiqttit mefien. Sch. 

t @et (bit) miv nnKfommen, ber bit mit mir gCeicfje ©efityfe tf)ei(eft. Sch. 

2>u marft e£, ber ifm bcrtfyin gepri'icf>tet fjrtt. Sch. 


ETYMOLOGY. 141 

tives in the plural number. As the pronoun foldfjer is a demon- 
strative, so Wa$ flit emer is an interrogative for the species of 
persons or things (§ 127); e. g. tt>a3 flit etn ^ami? what 
kind of man? wa§ fitr 2£ein? what sort of wine? Voa$ fixt 
Xl;iere? what species of beasts ? XV a $ fixv tin $fevb tft bk$ ? 
em 51ra6er? what description of horse is this? an Arabian ? # 
It may be also used substantively ; e. g. id) Will biV fa#etT, 
Wa$ fttr einet er if?, I'll tell you of what kind he is. The 
compound Wildf etHCr, in which the termination of ttKlcf)CV is 
always dropped, has the same signification as ft?a$ flit Cinev : 
it is never used substantively, but employed especially in ex- 
pressions of surprise and admiration ; e. g. Wildo etn 3ft efe ! 
what a giant ! ftulcfj e in Un>]ebeuer ! what a monster ! Some- 
times the pronoun einer is omitted; e.g. Wtld) ©CttUtter ! 
what a thunderstorm ! f 

Observation. — In ancient German fo was employed as an adjective rela- 
tive pronoun; e.g. bte @Ute, fo fife mtr etWiefen fcafcen, the kindness 
which you have showed me. This practice is now antiquated. 

c. Adverbial Interrogative and Relative Pronouns. 

§131. 

The adverbial interrogative and relative pronouns (or inter- 
rogative and relative adverbs) W0 9 where ; Warm or ft?emi, when ; 
Wk, how; are formed from the substantive-pronoun ftm$ (§129). 
\$Bq is frequently used in the room of the adjective relative pro- 
noun welcfrer with the preposition in or an; e.g. bk ©telle ft>0 
Xroja (ranbj the place in which, or where, Troy stood J. The 
form WeiW is used chiefly in the conditional signification of the 
conjunction if. %$q makes not only the contracted forms WO' 
ran, tt>orin, &c. mentioned already (§ 129), but it also forms 
adverbs by contraction with (jev and Ijitt, viz. W or)eVj whence ; 
Wofym, whither, whereto; e.g. ft) bet fbmmftbu? whence do 
you come? JVO^in #et)jt fru? whither are you going ? 

* S&rtS ift'S fi'tt einer? (£$ tft fctn SBityme. Sch. 

SBctS fiit ein SnnbSmann Diftbu? Sch. 

£Bii$te man, ma& c$ fur 3?etten finb urn bie man mid) fceneibet! Sch. 
t 5R5 ef d) anbre ©prndjc fiifyrt fie jeljt '. Sch. 

2Be(d) ©U'trf be$ £tmme(8 fyafr id) n>eg gefcfyfeubert ! <SW«. 
t Itennft bu bn$ Snub, id i> bic 3itronen bttyn ? GoV/te. 


142 ETYMOLOGY. 

4. Indefinite Pronouns. 

\ 132. 

The indefinite pronouns (finer, limn, J^wanb, (fttt i a£, and 
Reiner, Dfiemanb, 9?icf)t3, are of the description of substantive- 
pronouns (§ 119). 

53?an, they, or one (French on); $lid)tv, nothing ; and (f tnm$, 
something ; are indeclinable. We express by man only the sub- 
ject in the nominative case; e.g. man fa#t, they say, it is said 
(French on dit) ; man reifet fcfniell, one travels fast. When 
another case is to be expressed, (finer is employed in the room 

of man; e.g. man fyracbe $ern ntit itym, aBer er verfteljt (f inen 

nicfjt, one would like to speak with him, but he does not under- 
stand one. 3cmanb a somebody, and 9?iemanb, nobody, have in 
the genitive case the termination e$; in the dative and accusa- 
tive cases they either take en, or no termination at all. 

The indefinite pronouns (finer, one, somebody, and Reiner, 
nobody, are of the description of substantive-pronouns, and 
are applied, in the same way as ^emanb and 9?iemanb, only to 
the notion of person, without distinction of sex ; e. g. e3 ifr 

(finer erfdblagen rcorben, somebody has been killed ; j?einer 

ttXtj? 5llte$, no one knows everything. From the indefinite 
pronouns, however, the definite numeral einer, one, and the 
indefinite numeral feiner, no or none, must be distinguished, 
which are adjectives, and applied also to things; e.g. etn 

$ferb, one horse ; fein 3)?enfdb, no person, (finer and feiner 

have the inflection of adjectives (§116); but, like the possessive 
pronouns (§ 123), lose the termination in the nom. sing. masc. 
and neut. and in the nom. and accus. sing. neut. when they 
are placed as adjectives before substantives ; e.g. ein, ftin 
3)?enfdb, one, no man ; etn, ftin Xl;ier, one, no animal. 

The indefinite (£tn)a$ and 9?icf)t$ are also substantive-pro- 
nouns, and applied to the notions of things in the same way 
as ^Wrtflb ana * 9?iemanb to those of persons ; e. g. id) |>a&e 
9?id()t$, gih mir (f ttt?a3, I have nothing, give me something. 
They are also employed, however, as indefinite numerals ; in 
which case they are frequently used as adjectives (see § 136). 
In familiar intercourse wa$ is frequently employed for (f ttt>a$ ; 
e. g. id) Will bir Wa$ fagen, I '11 tell you something. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


143 


Chapter V. — Of Numerals. 


§ 133. 

Numerals do not express notions, but only the relations of 
number and quantity (§ 8). They are definite if they imply 
a definite number, as two, three ; and indefinite if they imply 
an indefinite number, as many, or an indefinite quantity, as 
much. 

Those definite numerals which express merely the number 
of persons or things, and from which all other definite nume- 
rals are formed, are termed Cardinal numerals. They are 
either simple, as three, four ; or compound, as fourteen, twenty- 
three. In the German language, numerals compounded with 
fiVatylQ, twenty ; bni§iQ, thirty, &c. the component em, %Wa, 
btei, &c. is placed before the other component, and connected 
with it by means of the conjunction tmb. Thus the German 
cardinal numerals are as follows : — 


i. em. 

2. ^rcet. 

3. brei. 

4. tner. 

5. ftinf. 

6. fedb3. 

7. fieBen. 

8. adbt. 

9. neim. 
io. 3et;m. 

11. elf. 

12. *wblf. 

13. bret^n. 

14. »ie^e£m. 

15. fimfteljtt. 

16. fedj^ctjn. 

17. fte&en^n. 

18. adbQeljn. 

19. netm^elm. 

20. 3U>an$i#. 


21. em imb fivaufift. 

22. $vzi imb $Da\\$Q. 

23. bui imb ^an^tg. 

24. t?ier unb ^van^ig. 

25. ftinf imb pa\v d i$, &c. 

30. bveigt#. 

31. cm imb 5rci^i^, &c. 

40. Viltfifl. 

50. fiinfyig. 
60. fedb^tg. 
70. jteBen^. 
80. acbtgtg. 
90. netm^. 

100. l;tmbevt. 

101. Humbert tmb em. 
no. fnmbevt imb tffyw. 

161. fmnbevt em imb fedb^ifl. 
200. ^rcei iwnbert. 
300. brei (nmbert. 
400. wet t;imbert. 


144 ETYMOLOGY. 

500. funffnmbert. 10,000. pfyu taufenb. 

600. fecHNnbevt, &c. 100,000. (ntnbevt taufenb. 

1000. taufenb. 200,000. ^wei (nuibevt taufenb. 

2000. ^nxi taufenb. 1,000,000. eine Million. 

In the numeral em, eine, ein, the gender is distinguished by 
the inflection, which is explained in § 132. 

In old German the gender was distinguished in $mi also by 
the forms ^Ween, $VQ 9 ^Wei : this practice is now obsolete. The 
inflected genitive ^ttXter, and the dative ^ttxien, are employed 
only when the case is not marked by inflection in another 

word. We say, therefore, bte gufammenfunft ^weier ^reunbe, 
the meeting of two friends; id) |)a6e e$ ^ttKten gefaflt, I told 
it to two persons; id) tytibi Z§ VOW ftWlitn $e|)brt, I learnt it 
from two persons: but we say, bte 3 u f anintett ^ m f^ bet 4 , or 
btefer ^rcet gteunbe; id) IjaBe e3 biefen ^roei, or ^nm ^reunben 
#efa.qt. The same applies to bui. The other cardinal nume- 
rals assume the termination en in the dative case, when they 
are used substantively, the case not being pointed out by 
another word ; e. g. mtt fed) fen fasten, to go in a coach and 
six (horses) ; icjj ()aBe e3 f tin fen $efa$t, I told it to five per- 
sons. 

The numeral Betbe, both, has the declension of adjectives in 
the ancient and modern form (§ 116. and Syntax, § 170); 
e. g. bet Xob fcetbet ©b^ne, the death of both sons, and ber 
Xob fetner 6eiben (E>b&ne. The singular of the neuter gender, 
6etbe$, is frequently used substantively; in which form it cor- 
responds to the English expression, the one and the other ,- 
but is applied only to the notions of things, and not to those 
of persons; e. g. Betbe 3 t(l Watjr, the one and the other is 
true; Beibe$ i(I nu$udf), the one and the other is useful. The 
use of Beibe in the plural number is less limited than that of 
the English both ; it is applied generally to persons or things, 
of which there are only two, and to which in English only the 
numeral two is applied ; e.g. id) fyciht ityXi Beiben 2?vitbcv #e= 
fe^en, I have seen your two brothers; er fydt Wtf btefe Beiben 
25Ucfjev #efdbenFt, he presented me with these two books. The 
English expressions both gold and silver, he both danced and 
sung, are not translated in German by Betbe, but by other 
copulative conjunctions. See 154. 


ETYMOLOGY. 145 

Cardinal numerals are considered as adjectives; but in 
German the substantive referred to is frequently omitted, so 
that they are used substantively like other adjectives (J 7); 
e. g. bte 2) ret, H>elc{)e famcn, the three who came, .gltttbert 
and Xaufetlb are not only used substantively in this way, but 
are employed also as substantives of the neuter gender with 
articles, and declined as such ; e. g. bd$ $unbevt, vidt .gtmberte, 
tnele Xaufenbc (£i\K 3)?iUt0ll is always employed as a substan- 
tive of the feminine gender with an article. 

When cardinal numerals denote cyphers or numbers marked 
on cards, dice, &c. they are considered as substantives of the 
feminine gender, because the substantive $al)t, number, is un« 
derstood; e.g. bte 3 Wei, the number two ; tie .get^ftefcen, 
the seven of hearts. Substantives of various significations are 
formed from cardinal numerals by means of the affixes er and 
ItW] (§ 38, 41); e. g. Sveter, ©edbfer, a coin worth three, six 
kreuzers ; (?tfer, %WtimtyWtitt$i®tt, wine of the growths of 
1811 and 1822; 3wittm$, 2>nUm#, a twin, one of three chil- 
dren born at the same time. 

The numeral etrt is frequently used in the signification of 
the English the same; e. g. e$ ift et net let, it is all one, or the 
same thing; fte ftnb e titer 2)?etmm#, they are of one, or of the 
same opinion *. 

§ 134. 

Ordinal numerals are formed from cardinal numerals, by 
adding the termination t ; and when the cardinal terminates 
in Jig, by the termination jr ; e. g. ber ^Weite, ber bt'itte (instead 

of brette), ber fitnfte, ber jwbtfte, ber bret^efmte, and ber jttmnjtefft, 
bev $wi unb bretgtcjfre. The ordinal numeral of etner is ber erffe, 
the first (§11 7). *!Der anbete, the other, may be regarded as 
an ordinal numeral of ^nxt ; but it is in modern German em- 
ployed as such only when no more than two persons or things 
are referred to; e.g. em 2?etn if! fitter aU ba$ an b ere, one 
leg is shorter than the other. Its use, therefore, is more 
limited than in English : in expressions like give me another 
glass of wine, another is translated by nod) etn; — gib nth* nocjj 


* £> bc$ ©futfttdjcn, bem e$ uergontit iff, @tne Suft mit (?u# ju flifemett. Sc7k 

L 


146 ETYMOLOGY. 

Ctn ©la$ 28eut (see § 139). Ordinal numerals are inflected 
like adjectives (§ 116). 

From ordinal numerals, adverbial numerals are formed by 
the termination enS (en-3) ; e. g. erfkn3, flWeitenS, britten$, Vkt- 
ten3, &c. firstly, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c. (see § 140.) 

Observation. — The English the next is in some expressions rendered by 
an ordinal numeral ; e. g. the next morning, ben anbertt 5J?0ryCn j the next 
after him, bev @vfre nacf> i&m. 

§135. 
The following numerals are formed by composition with 
cardinal and ordinal numerals : — 

1. Variative numerals, by compounding cardinal numerals 
in the genitive case with the obsolete substantive lei, kind; 
e. g. einerlei, ^eievlei, bretevlet, ^nevlei, of one, two, three, ten 
kinds. They are used as adjectives, but have no inflection ; 
e. g. breterlet 9?ofcn, three kinds of roses. 

2. Distributive numerals are formed as in English ; e. g. 
^ftXt imb ^Wei, bni ttnb bm, two and two, &c. In the same way, 
jte ^iKt, jte brei, &c. are employed. 

3. Multiplicative numerals are formed by compounding 
cardinal numerals with fad) ; e. g. einfacf), ^etfacj) (or ^ie= 
fadb), btetfadb? &c. simple, twofold, threefold, &c. In a few 
instances the obsolete falti# has been retained; e. g. in 
Junbettfaltijge %Xild)t tta^en, to bear fruit a hundredfold ; vitU 
f'dlXig, mamii#fattt#, many fold, (£mfalti# implies simple, art- 
less, silly; and eivtfadb ? simple, uncompounded. These nu- 
merals are used and inflected as adjectives. 

4. Reiterative adverbial numerals are formed by com- 
pounding cardinal numerals with mat, time (French fois); 
e. g. einmal, ^etmal, btetmal, &c. once, twice, three times, &c. 
In the reiterative adverb ehimat, — e. g. in id) l)ahi i\)X\ XWXt 
einmal Cjefefyen, I saw him only once, — the principal accent 
is laid upon ettl, which may be separated again from mat (em 
fflal) : it differs in this respect from the adverb of time, eitt= 
tttalj once, one day, some time or other ; in which the prin- 
cipal accent is laid upon mal, and in which em is frequently 
omitted in popular language ; e.g. id) Jja6e il)\l einmal (or 

mal) ^efeljen, I saw him one day; e$ war einmal tin RMfr 
there was once a king. 


ETYMOLOGY. 147 

5. Fractional numerals are formed by compounding ordinal 
numerals with the substantive Xljeil, part, which is contracted 
with the termination of the ordinal numeral into td; e. g. 
Sttttct, 2?tevtcl, Simftel, &c. a third, fourth, fifth part, &c. 
They are employed as substantives of the neuter gender, and 
declined accordingly. Instead of giKttd, the adjective l)alh, 
half, is employed; which, when standing before names of 
countries and places of the neuter gender, is commonly not 
inflected ; e. g. £>al6 Conbon. 

6. Dimidiative numerals, analogous to the Greek and Latin 
numerals of the same description (yhmt&tciqtos, sesquitertius), 
are formed by compounding ordinal numerals with (jal6 ; e. g. 
fcrtttel;al6, X)terte()al6, &c. two and a half (literally the third 
half), three and a half. For one and a half, there is dttbevte 
()al6 (literally the other or second half). These numerals are 
not inflected. 

§ 136. 

The following are of the description of indefinite numerals 
(§ 133); jeber, jegticfjer, jebroebev, every; jebermami, every body; 
mand&e, etltdbe, etroeic&e, einige, some; atle, all; tuel, many, 
much ; wmig, few, little ; ntd;r, more ; vo eni$er, less ; ntdwere, 

several; gatlfa all, whole; $emt#, enough. — Reiner, not one; 
(ftiM^, a little, some ; and 3lid)t§, nothing ; are of the same 
description, in as far as they express relation of number or 
quantity. Indefinite numerals are considered as adjectives, 
and are inflected accordingly ; except 3>ebertttatttt, (?ttt?a$, and 
9ftd[)t#, which are regarded as substantives. (£ttt>a$, 3?td[)t3, 
and $enU£, have no inflection at all; etlicfje, etwddbe, einkje, 
manege, and atle, do not admit of an article, and therefore are 
always inflected in the ancient form (§ 116). The inflection 
of feinet* has been mentioned in § 132. In 3ebeMiann only 
the genitive case 3eberttlftlin3 is inflected. ©CUty like flatt? 
(§ 135), is not inflected when it stands before names of coun- 
tries and places of the neuter gender; e. g. $attg (£n#lanb, 
gan^ $ari$*. 

In the use of the indefinite numerals, particular attention 


(Ftregt tft gnnj ^efftnrt. Sck* 
L 2 


14-8 ETYMOLOGY. 

ought to be paid to the distinction of the relation of a number 
of individuals {many persons, ajfew persons), from the relation 
of a quantity of things, in which individuality is not distin- 
guished (§ 6) {much money, little water). 3ebcv» jeCjltdKV, jeb; 

tt>eber, 3ebermamt, etlicbc, etnxlcfce, cini$e, mandje, and melnere, 

always express a relation of number, (?tSVa£, dlid)tv, #an£, 
on the contrary, denote a relation of quantity ; but alle, tnel, 
ttJenig, nte|)r, Wemger, #entt#, hin, are used in both senses, 
which then are frequently distinguished by the inflection of 
the numeral. Thus all, if used in the plural, refers to 
number : in the singular, on the contrary, it implies quan- 
tity : e.g. alle SQfenfcfren, all men; in alien Sin^en, in all 
things; an alien Orten, in all places; and alle£ @elb, all the 
money; alle 2Pelt, all the world, all people; a Her $Btin, all 
the wine; in alle? (file, in all haste, 5llle$ however (sing, 
netit.), like bd$ and tva$ (§ 125, 129), is sometimes applied 
also to an indefinite number of persons ; e. g. 2111 e 3 fveuct jtd}, 
every body is happy *. The definite article is never placed 
after all, as in English. When all is used in the singular 
number, and is followed by a pronoun, the termination of 
inflection is frequently dropped ; e. g. et 4 V0Z\$ V on all bem 
ntcj)t3, he knows nothing of all that; all tttetn ©elb, all my 
money; all biefet SKJeittj all this wine. 5111 is never em- 
ployed in the signification of whole {totus), like the English 
all, in all the year, t>a$ ganp 3^? ; Q tt ^ e da y, fan gan^en 
Xa$ ; in all Venice, in $an$ 2?enebi#. 

3eber, je#lid)er, and jebttxber, have the same distributive sig- 
nification which every has in English : they relate to persons 
or things of any number, and stand also in the room of the 
English each; e.g. 3^ bet 4 lo6t fetn 2?aterlanb, every one praises 
his own country ; 2ille finb gefcbafttg, ^tbtv auf feme 2Deife, all 
are busy, each in his own way; @# finb fiVii 2MtbeV, Ullb 3ebcr" 
l)at etn 6efbnbeve$ @efd)aft, they are two brothers, and each of 
them has a separate business. In some instances the gene- 
rality of a number, which is expressed in English in a distri- 
butive way by every, is denoted in German only by all ; e. g. 
alle ^afytt, alle Xa#e, every year, every day; alle bret 

* 9ttir fofot &er S(urf), »n& 2H(e$ fKc&ct mid). Sck. 


ETYMOLOGY. 149 

donate, every three months; fcm $ail# if? Allien often, his 
house is open to every body; er W>etj? $lUe$, he knows every 
thing. 3^r, je^lidbcv, and jebwebet, are used only in the sin- 
gular number, except in the expression $Ule UX\b 3ebe, all and 
every of them. 

9)?cmc[je in a general way implies an indefinite number, and 
Ctlidbc, etwelcfre, (some of,) a definite or indefinite number; e. g. 

eriiat mandbe gveunbe, mtb (gtlidbe 6>a6en t^m 35atJeife t^rcr 

Smm&fcbaft flCflefcetl, he has (a number of) friends, and some 
of them have given him proofs of their attachment ; bte ©cfclt- 

fcfjaft 6ejiel;t au$ twatyiq 3)?it$ttebevn 5 after (gtUdbe jmb a&wes 
feiib, the society consists of twenty members, but some of 
them are absent. 3)?ancfcet is also used in the singular number, 
and then corresponds to the English many a ; e. g. bd$ tttadbt 
m\X manege fdblafTofe 9?ac{)t, that causes me many a sleepless 
night*. (£im$e, if applied to a number, implies a few (but 
more than one); e.g. etmcje 5tepfel, some apples; eim#e 
^na6en, some boys : employed before abstract substantives, it 
denotes quantity ; e.g. e$ if? nodb etllt^C .0oftl!M1#, there is 
some hope left; etntcjermajsfen, in some measure. 

When the indefinite numerals vid and ttxni# refer to a 
quantity, they are not inflected; e. g. tnel Staffer lUlb tt>eni# 
^Bctn, much water and little wine f . Applied to a number, on 
the contrary, they are always inflected, if used substantively ; 
e.g. 2?iele fi'nb Bemfen, ahtt $}ent#e jmb au3em>a&lU: but if 
used adjectively, they are employed either with or without in- 
flection ; e.g. f>ier (inb tnele j?mnfe, a6enmm#e Sle^te, and 
e$ £t6t Vid fttaxiU, aUt WClltjg Slerjte, there are many patients 
but few physicians §. 

$)M)t and ivent^er are not generally inflected ; e. g. e$ #t6t 


* 2)icS ift ber ntte @d)auptaf$ nod), bic Sauf&rt^n m mid) eg roadjfenben £rttente$. Sch. 

Sf)t roerbet m and) en atten Sreunb begrtigen. SWf. 
f 2) a roar roentg (?()re ju erroer6en. Sch. 

SStei nod) fjaft bu Don mir ju f)3ren. tfcA. 

@te fyaben fo roenig Stfeugier. £c/i. 

v 3ttit roenig 5Gi£ unt> Diet SBefyagcn. Gothe. 
\ &$ tyalten'S fjier nod) SSicte mtt bem J?of. Sch. 

dp fiinnen fid) nur SK5 e n i g e regiren. Soft. 
§ yjlnxia \)at nod) u i e f Deroorgne $reunbe. Sch. 

(?5 6raud)t nid)t Diet 50orte. SWi. 

??ur we it t<] s 2)?enfd)en roerben fo Dorjiiflttd) pegunfUgt. fit/*. 


150 ETYMOLOGY. 

fciev me&r 0ietd;e, aUx nod; mityx 5lrme air anberftw, there are 
more rich but at the same time more poor here than elsewhere ; 
eg gi6t fykx reenter Slev^te, after aucf) wenifler jfranfe aU an= 

fcev$WO, there are fewer physicians but also fewer patients here 
than elsewhere. The form me^fete, like the French plusieurs, 
has not the signification of the comparative degree, but answers 

the English several ,- e.g. idb l;a6e mejjme Sfrtefe erl;alten, I 
had several letters. 

(?trc>a$ used substantively as an indefinite numeral implies 
a small quantity; e. g. jjtfc mit nit? (?twa3, give me only a 
little. It is frequently employed adjectively in the sense of 
the English some ; e. g. $ib mix etn?a$ 2?rob, give me some 
bread; etwa? @elb, some money. Employed adverbially it 
corresponds to the English somewhat, in expressions like er iff 
ettt?a$ lafii#, he is somewhat troublesome; ev fcefrtlbet ficjb 
CtWag 6e)]ev, he is somewhat better. 

9?tcf)t» is never employed adjectively, except when standing 
before an adjective in the neuter gender used substantively 
(§ *7); e -g- M ift m$tg @Ute3 an ibm, there is nothing good 
in him; ev £>at mix ntd)t£ 2ln$enelMte3 #efa#t, he said nothing 
pleasant to me. 

The indefinite numerals, maild&er, alle, Vkl, metjr, Fein, are 
compounded with lei into variative numerals ; e. g. ntancbevlei, 

allevlei, &c : and jeber, etlid&e, eini^e, mancbev, alle, ml, ntefw, 

are compounded with mal into reiterative adverbs ; e. g. jet>e& 
mal, etni^emal, &c. (§ 135.) Instead of feinmal we commonly 

use mental: and xttelmal, mel^nnal, niental, like jemal (at any 

time), commonly assume a final g (vidmaU, mttyxtnaU, mztttOiU, 

jemalg). 

Observation I. — In German all adjective indefinite numerals are, like 
other adjectives, used substantively (§ 7); e.g. 3eber, every body; handler, 
many a man; (5tltrif)t\ some people; $iele, many persons; $U(f£, every- 
thing. Before ^ebev, jegltcbvr, and jebtveber, the indefinite article is fre- 
quently employed; e. g. ettl 3^f> every one. 

Observation 2. — There are no German words corresponding to the English 
either, neither, any, and each as far as one of two is implied. Either is 
rendered by einCV VC\\ betbeil, one of both ; neither by feiner VC\] fcetbeit, 
none of" both; and each by ^eber. Any is variously translated, according 
to its signification ; e.g. any body, Sfe&evmiUUl ; anything, fllle£; in any 
place, UberaK ; and any one, any man, irgenb Sfcwanb; in any place, any- 
where, trgenbWP ; at any time, $U trgettb enter 3eif. 


ETYMOLOGY. 151 


Chapter VI. — Of Adverbs. 

§ 137. 
Those forms of substantives, adjectives, pronouns, and nu- 
merals, which express the relations of locality, time, or 
manner, are regarded as adverbial ; e. g. he lives in the 
country ; he arrived before night ; he came in great haste 
(§13). Adverbs however, in the stricter sense of the word, 
are only those iriflejcible forms of "words which express the 
same relations as abroad, soon, quickly *. Adverbs are either 
notional or relational words (§1); the former being made 
from substantives and adjectives (or participles), whilst the 
latter are formed from pronouns and numerals. Many adverbs 
however, although formed from substantives and adjectives, 
now express merely place, time, &c. in reference to the 
speaker, and are accordingly to be regarded as relational 
words; e. g. o6cn, above; imten, below; je$t, now; halb 9 
soon; fvetlidb, indeed. 

§138. 

The following adverbs are of the description of relational 
words : — 

1. Most adverbs of place. Such are, the demonstrative and 
interrogative adverbial pronouns l)ter, OCi, bort, WO, Sec. (§ 128, 
131) : some compounds of pronouns, e. g. broften, there above; 
frnmteit, there below; brattgen, without doors; IjtemebCH, here 
below ; bieffett$, on this side ; jenfett^, on that side : and the 
adverbs, au$in, without ; tmKtt, within ; o&en, above ; UUten, 
below ; nteber, down ; jjmtett, behind ; VOtn, before ; fort, forth, 
off; YOtQ, away ; juuicf, back ; vecf>t$, to the right hand ; tiuU, 
to the left hand ; V0WM§, forwards ; Vttcftt?avt£, backwards ; 

tv#enb, anywhere; nivqenb, nowhere; uBerall, aliened 6en, 

everywhere; fceifammen, ^Itfammcn, together. 

2. Most adverbs of time. Such are, baim, al^baim, then ; 
WCUm, when; bamal£, at that time; emj?, once; etfr, ^UCVJr, 

* ©rnmmnttf. § 9, 161. 


152 ETYMOLOGY. 

first; etf}en£, in the first place; £tt>ettCtt$, secondly, &c; je, 
jettiatS, ever, at any time ; tmmet 4 , allqett, jtdt$, always ; mm* 
tuer, never ; je$t, nun, now ; nocfr, still ; fcf)0u, 6emt3, already ; 
Balb, soon ; torttiaiS, fonfl, formerly ; e6en, just now ; neulicfr, 
jtttt^jr, lately ; fo^leidb? immediately ; ttddf)ften$, the next time ; 
^lUjleidfj, at the same time; tstetjlett^, mostly; (jeute, today; 
UlOV^en, tomorrow; gejiertfc yesterday; uoevmot^en, the day 
after tomorrow ; t>0V#ej?evn, the day before yesterday. 

3. The adverbs of frequency and of intensity. Frequency is 
implied by oft, often ; felten, seldom ; ttueber, afcermal^, again ; 
and by the adverbial numerals CtHtttal, ^ettttal, &c. (§ 135.) 
Intensity is implied by fo, as (Lat. tarn); Vok, aU, as (Lat. 
quam, ac) ; fejjr, very ; $at, quite ; fogar, even ; it6etau3, ex- 
ceedingly; 6einflfK, fa jl, nearly; nut, only; aucfc, even; fauttt, 
scarcely; £U, too; etnifletmajjen, in some measure; gan^Ucfr, 
entirely ; JKit, 6ci tteitem, far ; |>bdbfr, most ; mmbejf, least. 

4. The adverbs of mood (§ 8, 10). Such are, ja, yes; bod), 
yet, however; rtta^rltdb, fitrtvafjr, indeed; ttutflicf), really; 
$oaX) fvetltdb, though, however; mm, tlicf)t, no, not; hi\K& 
Wt3$, not at all; o6, if; Cttva, ficlkidbt, perhaps; wot, per- 
haps, indeed ; rtf alnfcfremlicfr, probably ; #ew, with pleasure ; 

bardbau^, aUerbin^^, fcMecfrterbiu^, by all means ; weni#ffcn$, 

at least ; and some others. 

5. A few adverbs of manner : viz. fo, so, thus ; ttUC, how, as ; 
anbeVtf, otherwise ; e6cn fo, in the same way; $embe fo, exactly 
so. 

§ 139. 

The proper use of the relational adverbs requires particular 
attention, because their signification, like that of most other 
relational words, is more vague than that of notional words. 
In this respect the following remarks may be of use. 

The adverb of place, bd, frequently expresses the relation 
of time, and takes the signification of then ; e. g. bzx 2?atCV Fattt 
an, ba WCIV ^VOfJe Jvctlbe, the father arrived, then there was 
great happiness *. 

.gicr implies the locality of the person who speaks, in the 
absence of any motion, either toward it or away from it; e.g. 

* SBenti ber Conner fyaiti, brt fttylen fief) alie £erjen in bee ©djitf fills ©ercnft. Sck, 


ETYMOLOGY* J 53 

Ct WoljUt |>iev, he dwells here. The adverbs (jef and f)in are 
not generally expressed by any words in English : (jet* implies 
a motion towards the speaker, whilst jjin implies a motion 
away from him ; e. g. fotttttt l;er, come towards me ; gtl) fym, 
go away : they retain the same signification when com- 
pounded with prepositions or other adverbs. Thus we distin- 
guish er tettet j^ier, ba, he rides in this, in that place, from et VCttCt 
i)ierfyef, he rides towards this spot (where the speaker stands); 
bottom, towards that spot (pointed out by the speaker, and 
away from him) ; bafytt, from that spot (towards the speaker) ; 
ba^tHj towards that spot (removed from the speaker) # . In 
historical narrative, however, where the person who speaks is 
lost sight ofj l;er and |)tn are referred to the person spoken of; 

e. g. er rtef t|m herein, he called him in ; $etut3 ging t;maa3, 
Peter went out. .get and Ijin placed after prepositions, which 
in that case have the subordinate accent, take the place of the 
demonstrative pronouns ba$, that, and biefe£, this ; e. g. fOfljef 
nac|)l;er, before (that), after (that), afterwards ; tfovljtn, a short 
time ago (before this) (§ 128). In baljer, from that (thence); 
bafttrt, to that (thither) ; JV0l;et, from what (whence) ; Woljttt, 
to what (whither); tyev and Ijhi, which take the principal accent, 
have assumed the power of prepositions. In WotytX the com- 
ponents are sometimes separated again, as they are in where- 
from in English ; e. g. tvo fbttimt ev {)ev ?■ where does he come 
from f ? 

The signification of nun differs from that of je$t, which is 
purely an adverb of time, and implies the present time in 
reference to the speaker ; e. g. er fct»VCt6t je$t, he is now 
writing : whereas rutU always relates to an antecedent, which 
is regarded as a cause; e. g. bit I) aft e$ X>erfprocf?en, mm nut ft 
bu 32}ort tyalten, you promised it, therefore you must keep your 
word. It is equivalent to the English well in expressions like 
runt, tdb &a6e n(cf)t^ bagegen, well, I have no objection to it ; 


* There being in English no adverbs corresponding to \)tx and fytn, the direction 
of a motion in reference to the place occupied by the speaker is sometimes distin- 
guished by the use of different verbs. Thus to go, to take, express a motion away 
from the speaker ; whilst to come, to bring, refer to a motion towards him. In the 
German verbs gefyen, fotnmett, nefymetl, (ntitgen, no relation of the speaker is under- 
stood. 

t 8Bd fam bet ©cfynutcf. fyztl Sch. 


154 ETYMOLOGY. 

mm, tt?a3 Mmfdbej? bit ? well, what do you wish for # ? And 
it is employed even in the signification of since ; e. g. nun frte 
©efal;r vovti6er if?, Fbnnen n?tr olnie gurdbt fetn, (now) since the 

danger is over, we may be without fearf. 

@onf? originally means at another time ; e. g. er trinft t)UlU 
Stfein, fonft trinft CV Rafter, today he drinks wine, usually (all 
other days) he drinks water; tie (gtragen Wflren fonft fd)led)t, 
the roads were formerly bad : but it is applied also to place, 
manner, and other relations ; e. g. fonj?tt>o, elsewhere ; er fi'e£)t 
Hag ailv, if? abet fonft gefmib, he looks pale, but he is other- 
wise in good health. It has a conditional signification in ex- 
pressions like ba nutgt ar6citen, fonft wurft bu 9?ot() kiben, you 
must work, otherwise you will be in want. 

The relational adverbs of time, erf?, first; fdbon, already; 
and nocf), still, yet; if referred to the predicate, are employed 
in the same way as the corresponding adverbs in English ; 

e. g. id) null erf? avBeiten unb barm fyieten, I shall first work 

and then play; er fdbtiift fdbon, he is already sleeping; er 
fdbldft nod), he is still sleeping. 

These words are, however, more extensively employed in 
German than in English ; being frequently referred, not to 
the predicate, but to another word expressing a relation of 

time ; e. g. erf? $ef?em, fdbon tjeute, nodb biefen $l6enb. Such 

modes of expression being generally contrary to the English 
idiom, they cannot be literally translated ; and the adverbs of 
time, erf?, fdjon, nod}, must either be left out altogether, or the 
sense requires to be pointed out by circumlocution. Their 
signification is to be pointed out as follows : — eif? implies not 
before, and fdjon not later than, both referred to a point of 
time ; whilst nod[) expresses not before, as well as not later, but 
referred to a duration of time : we say, er if! erf? #ef?ew an^i- 
fommen, he did not arrive till yesterday; er if? fdbon #ef?ern 
an^efommen, he arrived yesterday (and not today) ; id) l)aht 
ii)n nocf) #e|Tern #efef)n, it was but yesterday that I saw him, 
I saw him only yesterday; er ttnrb nOC& petite anfontttien, he 
will still arrive in the course of the day, or, he will arrive this 

* 9?un, mir i(T 2WeS liefc, gefdf)tel)t nur (FtnxiS. Sch. 
t 5B>i$ fnnn bid) nnqftiflen, nun bu mid) fennft? Sch. 

Unb n u n ber £imtnet beineti ©rfjritt hterfjer flefenfet, fn \a§ bn$ Oftitfeib fiegett. Sch. 


ETYMOLOGY. 155 

very day; id) foil C^ erfi mot^en etfaljven, I am to know it 
only tomorrow, or, not till tomorrow; icf) foil e£ fcf)0t1 je$t 
erfc$ren, I am to know even now (it is not to be withheld from 
me any longer) ; id) foil eg nod) biefe -EUocbe, nod) (mite etfafc 
VCH, I am to know it within this week, this very day. The 
same words, erff, fd)0n, and nod), are also employed as adverbs 
of quantity and number, preceding other expressions of mea- 
sure : in that case erfl implies only no more than, fcl)0H as much 
as, and nod) moreover ; e. g. ev bat crfr cm ©lag $etmnfen, he 
has drunk only (no more than) one glass; Cf l)at fcf)011 ettte 
^an^e §lafc{)e qettunfen, he has drunk as much as a whole 
bottle; Ct Wilt nod) tin (Blag trtnFen, he wishes to drink an- 
other glass ; ev|t bremtal, no more than three times ; fc|)0tt btet= 
tttal, as much as three times ; nod) bvettttal, three times more. 
Intensity is denoted by nod; in expressions like nxrw id) and) 

nod) fo reidb marc, however rich I should be; rcemi id) eg and) 

IIOCJ) fo $tlt metne, however well intentioned it be: it has an 
adversative signification in expressions like Wit alle Be^etKjen 
eg, Wlb bit ^eifeljt nod) ? we all affirm it and yet you doubt? 
@cf)0n, as an adverb of mood, strengthens an assertion in ex- 
pressions like ev rotrb fdbon anbxxv %fttinm\Q tverben, he will 
(yet) change his opinion; idb Will ii)n fd)0n gWUI^en, I shall 
(certainly) force him. 

3a, yes, is employed as an adverb of mood, to express that 
an assertion is certain or self-evident; for which purpose the 
interrogative form is frequently used in English; e. g. id) 

feime u;n, cr ift jt a ntein SSemmnbter, I know him, is he not a 
relation of mine? eg rennet ja, ttuv fbmmen nid;t aug#e(}en, you 

see that it rains, we cannot go out. 

%\xd) stands as an adverb of quantity in expressions like 
and) bet 20eife(re farm ilten, even the wisest may err. %lud), 
if added to the interrogative pronoun n?er, \va$, gives it the 
signification of the English whoever ; e. g. JWf it aild) fei, 
whoever he may be; Wag er and) fa#C, whatever he may say*. 

The relational adverb tool is originally the same with the 
notional adverb V00l)l 9 well, which is applied to that which 
pleases our feelings ,• e. g. U)obltl;att#, charitable ; W0l;l WOlkn, 

* 20<t$ if)t nurf) ju frereueti I)<ifrt, in (?ng(nnb feib tljt nicfyt fd)it(btg. Sch. 


156' ETYMOLOGY. 

to wish well ; tt?c^)l auifel^en, to look well ; id) Btlt WO^l, I am 
well : and differs in that way from gut, which applies to that 
which is good in itself; e. g, gut j^anbeln, to act well ; gut 
fdbret6cn, to write well ; er i(? gut, he is good. 2£o£)l or wol, 
used as a relational adverb, implies possibility or probability ; 
e. g. ba$ ijl n? ol ein $lu5ldttber, (I suppose) that he is a foreigner; 

er I) at vool @elb, a6er fetnen 2?crjranb, he has indeed money 
but no sense *. Sometimes it may be translated by the English 
indeed f . 

The relational adverb gem, which is peculiar to the German, 
is supplied in English by the verb to like ; e. g. id) Ijafce ifjn 
tftttb I like him; er trmft gem W$im, he likes wine; er target 
gern, he likes to dance. 

§ 140. 
The following adverbs are notional words : — 
1.) A few adverbs of place and time; e.g. offtt>art$, east- 
ward; wejlwart?, westward; 6 erg till, up-hill; 6erga6, down- 
hill; Mlterweg?, on the way; and morgens, in the morning; 
a6cilb3, in the evening; n<XCf)t3, in the night; taglidj), every 
day ; jal}rttcfr, every year ; enbiicf), at last ; ClUg eilfcttifltdb, in a 
moment. 

2.) All adverbs of manner, with a few exceptions (§ 138). 
They are formed from verbs, from adjectives, or from sub- 
stantives. Those formed from verbs commonly have the form 
of the present participle; e. g. er fpvad) I a c{) el lib, he said with 
a smile; er fcat mid) bring en b, he requested me in a pressing 
way; er fpricfct jTtegenb, he speaks fluently. The past par- 
ticiple, however, is also used as an adverb of manner ; e. g. er 
fommt geriiftet or gepu$t, he comes armed, or in full dress: 
and the past participle of intransitive verbs is connected in a 
peculiar way with the verb fommen, in order to denote the 
manner of motion; e.g. er fommt gelaufen, gefafjren, ge* 
ritten, he comes running, in a carriage, on horseback^:. In 

* (Futf) liijtet mot me 25a6tngton $u enfcen? Sch. 

(fs ruirb mas H\\bez$ mo I Oebeuten. Sch. 

2Iuct) ein Ju-ie^ect tauft nod) mot betti bailee jufnmmen. Sch, 
t SSBo ( ifl er feiner eon ben metdjen 2f>o«n, bie cine frt(ftf>e SBeifcertyrane fd)me(}t. Sch. 
J 2US er nuf etnem (tntttic&en 9?o£ fommt geritten, fjort er ein ®(orfletn erfltngen, 
fin ^rieftet mar's, uornn fommt ber \ftef;ncr gefrfjr t ttem Sch. 

3ene gemnfttgeu ©etterfracfK fommen ftntfer geraufd)t unb gefd&offen. Sch. 


ETYMOLOGY. 157 

the expression wrloven #e(jen, to ue l° st 5 tne participle is also 
considered as an adverb. This participle used adverbially, 
which we call the Gerund, is to be distinguished from the 
participle used adjectively; e. g. in bet 4 tan^enbe ^na6e, the 
dancing boy (§ 77). Adverbs of manner are formed from 
abstract substantives by means of the affixes lief), tyaft, and 
from names of materials by means of the affix ic{)t; e. g. glucfs 
lidb, fortunately; franbljaft, constantly; fal^ic&t, like salt: and 
adverbs formed in this way are also used as adjectives (§ 52). 
In German, adjectives are generally employed as adverbs of 
manner, without assuming any distinctive termination; e.g. 
cr fdbVCiBt fdbbn, he writes beautifully ; iX fprtcf)t fdbUdjjt, he 
speaks badly; Cf avfceitet jTei§t#, he works diligently. In old 
German the adverbial relation was frequently expressed by 
the genitive case, which has been retained in some adverbs 
and adverbial expressions ; e. g. Clients, in haste ; ^ttfc^cnb^, 
visibly; tw#e&en$, in vain; fTu$3, quickly; jfracfg, directly; 
mor#et1$, in the morning; ttac&tS, in the night; fol#enber= 
ttiaj"?CU, in the following way ; etm$ermaj**er?, in some measure ; 
#lucfli#em>dfe, fortunately;* jal#tn#£, suddenly; 6ttnt>im<J$, 
blindly ; erffett$, firstly, &c. 

Observation. — An old practice of forming adverbs of manner from adjec- 
tives by the affix titf) has been retained in a few instances; e. g. ftUgtic^, 
wei$Iic&, wisely; &oe&lid[), highly; tmiti#, faithfully; tt>a&Vlt#, truly. 

§141. 
The adverbs of manner admit of a comparison, the forms of 
which are the same with those of adjectives (§117); e. g. ef 
tjf i)0d), IjbljCV, l)6$ft #eacf)tet, he is highly, more highly, in 
the highest degree esteemed; er fdbvetBt fcfSblt, fdbenet, am 
fdbbnjlen, he writes beautifully, more beautifully, the most 
beautifully. There are however different forms of the super- 
lative degree, by which the difference of the superlative of 
eminence and the superlative of comparison (§ 118) is distin- 
guished. The superlative of eminence is commonly expressed 
either by the simple form of the superlative degree, or by the 
preposition auf with the accusative case ; e. g. er #mgt ©te 

freunbltdbfr, or auf3 (auf ba$) freunblicfjfre, he salutes 
you most kindly ; er VCOetC mi# l)6flid)ft, or auf£ l)6flid)ftt 


158 ETYMOLOGY. 

an, he addressed me most politely; tx tjr f)bcf)fr, or aitf$ 
&bdbfte erfveut, he is most highly pleased. The superlative of 
comparison, on the other hand, is expressed by the preposition 
an with the dative case ; e.g. er #ruf*t ©ie am (an bent) fmtnb; 
lidbjten, er vebete mid) am £>bjTidbjten an, the most kindly, 
the most politely of all ; er wax am l;bcbjten etfveut, most of 

all pleased. The superlative of eminence is also frequently 
pointed out by the termination en$ ; e. g. fdf)bnfkn$, 6efren$, 
meijleng. In (;bdbj?en$, at the most (eg Fojret t;bdbf!en$ brei 
©olben, it costs but three florins at the most) ; lan#jteng, at 
the longest time ; weni#|ren3 and mtnbejleng, at least ; fpateftenl, 
at the latest; this form implies the highest possible degree. 

Of the relational adverbs, only felten, oft, Balb, and #em, 
admit of a comparison. The comparative of 6alb however is 
supplied by el^V, and the superlative by e(jejlen$ and am e{)efJcn: 
the comparative and superlative of $evn are supplied by UefceV 
and am IteBften. 


Chapter VII. — Of' Prepositions. 

§ 142. 

Prepositions are expressive, not of notions, but merely of 
relations of locality : they are accordingly of the description 
of relational words (§ 1, 10). Prepositions are also employed 
in order to denote the relation of time ; e. g. on Sunday, before 
this day : and the relation of causality ; e. g. to kill one by 
poison (Lat. ve?ieno) 9 to starve with hunger (Lat. fame), to 
choose owe for his friend (Lat. amicum) : but still the relation 
of locality is to be considered as their original meaning ; it 
being, on the other hand, originally the purpose of cases to 
express the relation of causality (see Syntax, § 178) *. 

Prepositions indicating the relation of causality are to be 
regarded as standing in lieu of cases ; and we shall express 

* ©rnmmflttf. § 166, 210. 


ETYMOLOGY. 1 59 

their use in the Syntax, in treating of the cases which they 
supply. 

All prepositions, properly so called, are originally adverbs 
of place : some substantives and adverbs, however, are now 
employed in the same manner as prepositions, though for the 
most part they do not imply a relation of locality; e. g. on 
account of, for the sake of instead of during. We consider 
them as prepositions, improperly so called (2lftevpvapofttiOttetl). 

§ 143. 
In the signification of the prepositions, properly so called, 
we distinguish the relation of mere locality [above or below, 
before or behind, within or without, or together, with another), 
and that of rest in or of motion to or from a place. 

The most part of prepositions express both relations at the 
same time : some of them, however, imply merely the direc- 
tion of a motion ; e. g. von, from (the direction from) ; fur, 
for ; #e$ett, against (the direction towards an object). The 
relation of mere locality is expressed by the preposition itself; 
e.g. itfcer, above ; unter, below : but that of rest or of motion to 
or from a place, is commonly pointed out by the case of the 
governed substantive ; e.g. €t iXJO^llt in fc>em .Qaufe, he lives 
in the house; CV $z\)X in ba$ $au$, he goes into the house. 

According to this general notion, the prepositions attJKV, 
out of, without; 6d, near; fcinnen, within; mit, with; wfcfr, 
together with ; which imply rest in a place, govern the dative 
case. The prepositions t>on, from, of; and au$, from ; which 
express the direction of a motion from a place, also govern the 
dative case. 

The prepositions blixd), through ; fur, for ; QtQttl and ttufrev, 
against; and am, about, round; which imply the direction of 
a motion towards a place, govern the accusative case. How- 
ever, \md), to, though it expresses the same direction, governs 
the dative case. 

The prepositions an, on ; attf, upon ; tjtnter, behind ; w, in, 
into ; neBcn, at the side of; iibcr, over, above ; miter, under, 
below; t> or, before ; govern the dative case, when rest in a 
place is implied : but when motion towards a place is expressed, 
they govern the accusative case. The preposition 311, at, to, 


160 ETYMOLOGY. 

however, always governs the dative case, though motion to- 
wards a place be implied. 

Observation.— \x\ ancient German the prepositions in, Itntev, and att^er, 
were also used with the genitive case; which practice has been retained in 
inbeifen and untevbeffen, in the mean time (Lat. interea); Ul1tem>ege£, on 
the way; a\l$CV Canbe*, out of the country, abroad. In POfl %{UX$ frer, 
from ancient times*, the genitive case stands elliptically. 

I. Prepositions which govern the Dative case. 
2?on, au$, aufter, fctrmen. 

§ 144. 
The preposition VOU expresses the direction of a motion 
from an object in the most general way; e. g. er fommt VOtt 
etnem $reunbe, t)on $ari3, vom Oneiric von bent S^er^e, von 
£)j?en 5 he comes from a friend, from Paris, from the Rhine, 
from the hill, from the east. It also denotes an origin or 
commencement of space and time ; e. g. 2Bem VOttt Rap, wine 
from the Cape; tJOttl SKbtiXK 6t$ an bte (£l6e, from the Rhine 
to the Elbe; t>on 2£eifjnadbten 6i£ Dftertt, from Christmas till 
Easter. In composition, tfcn is always supplied by ah ; e. g. 

abfalkn, to fall off; abretfen, to depart; aBfcfweiben, to cut 
off. 

tylXv implies a motion from within a place ; e. g. bte ©tettte 
fallen au§ ber £llft, the stones fall from (out of) the atmo- 
sphere ; er 303 emeu 2?rtef au$ bet* Xafcfje, he took a letter out 
of his pocket. It is used before names of countries, towns, 
and inclosed places, whenever a motion from within the same 
is expressed; e.g. er fbntmt au$ (£n#lanb, au§ £onboti, au$ 
ber ©tabt, aiiv ber ^ttdbe, from town, from church, &c. 

$luger implies no motion, and differs in this way from au$ ; 
e. g. er Wo£mt au§er ber ©tabt, he lives without the town; er 
ifr auger bem fiaafi, he is without doors; er ifr auger @e= 
fa^r, he is out of danger. 2luger implies exclusion from a 
generality, in expressions like alle auger bir Ijafcett e$ #ettmgt, 
all of them knew it except you: vriemattb auger u)ttt Wat ba, 
nobody was there but he. 


■ 5rd iviit ber ©cfyiueijer uon UrnftcrS fytt. Sch. 




ETYMOLOGY. 161 

2?tnnen implies within, but is applied only to time ; e. g. 
6 inn en bvet Xa#en, within three days. 

Bet, mit, nebfr. 

§ 145. 

The preposition bet expresses vicinity in the most general 
way; e.g. bet (£inem wo&nen, to live with one; bet <£inem 
fi$en, to sit near or by one; 6et §vanffutt, near Frankfort; 
fie fMjen bet einanber, they stand together; bag ijr bei ung 
0?ecfrteng (Sch.), that is lawful with us. $et as a preposition of 
time implies co-existence; e.g. Bet @Onnenauf#an#, at sun- 
rise; 6ei fehier 2lnfunft, at his arrival; beim Xobe beg Rom 
$eg, at the death of the king; 6ei @ek#cn(Kit, on the occasion; 
6 C t Xa$e, in the day-time; bet SRacbt, in the night-time. 

The preposition mit expresses not so much a co-existence 
in space, as a society in an action; e. g. mit (?mem fprecfcen, 
effen, trinfen, ttifen, to speak, to eat, to drink, to travel, in 
company with a person ; mit eincmbet, with one another. 

9?ebfr expresses neither a co-existence in space, nor society, 
but a combination of persons or things not otherwise con- 
nected with one another; e.g. bet 2)Utber tmt nefcft einem 

Srremben herein, the brother entered together with a stranger ; 

er ijat feine $brfe nebjl: feiner Ul)t tKvloren, he has lost his 
purse together with his watch. 

MCb, £U. 

§ 146. 

The preposition nacj) expresses the direction of a motion 
towards a place ; e. g. er QtfyX nad) $arig, tiadb £>eutfdblanb, 
nad) Ojren, nacb -paitfe, he goes to Paris, to Germany, to the 
eastward, home. It is never employed when motion towards a 
person is expressed. As a preposition of time it corresponds 
with the English after ; e. g. Iiacf) jfijet&nadbten, after Christ- 
mas. 

The preposition ^tt, like the English at, expresses rest in a 
place ; but it is used in this signification only before names of 
towns, villages, and before $an$ in the signification of home, 

M 


162 ETYMOLOGY. 

in order to denote the locality of persons and personal actions; 
e. g. ber $a6jr ^u 0?cm, the Pope at Rome; er £at ^u dUapd 
ehtett $mutb art^etvoffett, he met a friend at Naples ; ev ijt 3 a 
«j5aufe, he is at home: and when locality is expressed by 
reference to a person; e. g. £UV 0?ed)tett, $UV Cittf'en, to one's 
right or left hand; (ftnettt £ttr ©Ctte fid) en, to stand at one's 
side; (futettt £U 5iifcn fallen, to throw one's self at one's feet. 

Su also expresses the direction of a motion towards a person; 
e. g. er ge£)t ^Uttt 2?atet, he goes to his father; er fcfncft $tl ^u 
feittettt ^reiUI&C, he sends him to his friend. A direction of 
motion towards a place can be expressed by £U only when it 
is opposed to t>ott ; e. g. t?0t1 Catlb £U 2anb, from land to land ; 
t>on .0au3 £U igaitS, from house to house. 

An addition or union is also expressed by $U in expressions 
like ber ©arten #ej}6vet ^U bent -gaufe, the garden belongs to 
the house; Gaffer $um SBetrte gtefen, to pour water into the 
wine. In all other cases in which $u stands before names of 
things, e. g. 311 SBette, or ^u Xifdbe ^e^en, to go to bed, to go 
to table, it expresses rather a relation of causality, viz. the 
intention of sleeping, dining. git is used as a preposition of 
time only before the general denominations of time; e. g. %ut 
tedbten Sett, at the proper time; ^u brei 3D?oten, at three times ; 
3 urn erfren Whk 9 the first time. 

II. Prepositions governing the Accusative case, 
burcfc uttt, iRgen, wiber, fur. 

I' wr. 

The preposition butcf), like through, always expresses motion 
through the interior of something; e.g. er retfet bltrdb £>eutfd> 
tattb, er gejt burdf) bte ©tabt, he passes through Germany, 
through the town. 

Uttt, like round and about, refers to the outside of things, 
and implies either motion or rest ; e. g. er $d)t Uttt bte @tabt, 
he walks round the town; er ifr immer Uttt ben j?6tti$, he 
always is about the person of the king. Uttt as a preposition 
of time corresponds to the English about ; e.g. Uttt ^ei^ttacf)- 
ten, about Christmas; uttt bret Ufjr, about three o'clock : it 


ETYMOLOGY. 163 

denotes an exchange in expressions like (Ei\Kt atll 5en 2lnbern, 
one after another, by turns*; Uttt ben Ctnbern Xafi, every 
second day; 5fa$e um 2luge, galjn am 3 a l% e y e for eye, 
tooth for tooth. In this signification it denotes also a price ; 
e.g. alte$ ift eucf) feit Utn (Mb, every thing is venal to you for 
money. 

The preposition Qtgttl corresponds to the English towards, 

as well as to against; e. g. bte tyuqzn #e#en $immel ridbten, to 

turn the eyes towards heaven; fief) #e£en Often Wnben, to 
turn towards the east; and QiQiW ben Winb fc^cln, to sail 
against the wind; er tft $evecf)t ^c^eti greunb unb $einb, he is 
just towards friend and foe f. On the other hand, wibtt is 
employed only in the signification of against ; e. g. ft>iber bin 
@trom fdfmummen, to swim against the stream; ttuber bte 
^Banb tennen, to run against the wall. The preposition #e#en 
is used especially to denote a sentiment of love, as well as 
of hatred; e.g. fmuibtid) #e#en 3ebevnmnn, kind to every 
body; nadMtd)tt# #e#etl ©dSwacfce, indulgent to the weak; 

gmufam #e#en feine getnbe, cruel to his enemies. But nnber 

always implies a repugnancy ; e. g. et jjanbelt Wiber ©ettnffen, 
he acts against his conscience; ttuber Allien, against his will. 
(Se^en implies a comparison in expressions like er tft $e#en 
bicf) ein 0?iefe 5 he is a giant compared to you. It denotes 

exchange in #e#en etnen ^Becbfel (Mb empfan$en, to receive 

money for a bill : and it has the signification of about, if it 
refers to time, number, or measure; e. g. #e$en $(6enb, about 
the evening; #e#en (junbert 3)?amt, about a hundred men; 
#e#en fec($ ^11^, about six yards. 

The preposition fin* also originally expresses the direction 
towards an object, it is not however applied to actual motion in 
space, being limited to other actions which are only conceived 
as motion. §ur, in opposition to ftubeVj implies in favour and 

for the advantage ; e. g. ftir unb nuber eine (Sadbe ftreiten, to 

contend for and against a cause ; fit? (Sinetl fpvecben? to speak 
in favour of one; fur (£men fbr$en, to take charge of one. 
It expresses a substitution in expressions like etn (Mftlicfcer 

* Unetmubttd) fcefcfytifte id) fie, ben (?tnen um ben 9fnbern. Sch, 
■f Sft metn ©eroiffen gegen biefen ©tant gefcunben ? 
£iif>' id) "iPfUcfyten gen en (Fngfrtnb? SWj. 

M 2 


164? ETYMOLOGY. 

prebi#t fur ben $ln&Cfn, one clergyman preaches for (instead 
of) another; flit* @il6cr (Mb emwedbfeln, to exchange gold 
for silver. It is restrictive in the expressions, fit? I)eute, for 
today; fur btefe£ 3)?at, for this time; idb fiiv meine ^erfon, 
as for me. And it denotes a series in a distributive way in 
the expressions, 2D?ann flit 3)?arm, man by man; -HJort fitr 
■H>0Vt, word for word; ©cfjritt fitr @cl)ritt ? step by step. 

III. Prepositions governing both the Dative and Accusative 

cases. 

an, in, attf. 

§148. 

The preposition an signifies " near the outside of a person 
or thing, and in contact with it;" e. g. er ^an^t an bit, he is 
attached to you; (icf) an (£tnen fc(mtte#en, to cling to one; am 
Otyeine, on the banks of the Rhine ; a n bent 2i?e#e, by the 
way; an ber ©ran^e, at the frontiers ; an einen tyfafyl fcinben, 
to tie to a stake; an ber 2£anb, on the wall; an biefem £)rte, 
an jener ©telle, in this, in that place; aneinanber fetten, to 
chain together. As a preposition of time, an with the dative 
case denotes a point of time in a definite way, but is employed 
only when the time is not measured; e. g. am 20?or#en> in the 
morning; am $l6enb, in the evening; am ©onta#e 5 on Sun- 
day; am erflen $lprtl, on the first of April. We always say, 
however, in bet Stacfrt, in the night. 

The preposition in, like the English in and into, refers to 
an inclosed space and to the inside of things ; e. g. er tt>o|)nt 
in ber ©tabt, he lives in town ; er $eljt in bte ^ircbe, he goes 
into the church; ber §ifcfr im Gaffer, the fish in the water; 
er (re&t im §elbe, he stands in the field (in the camp) ; er iff 
in $urd)t, he is in fear; er iff in (Bebanfen, he is wrapt up in 
his thoughts. As a preposition of time, in with the dative 
case denotes a point of time, only however when the time is 
measured; e.g. in biefer ©tunbe, in this hour; in biefer 2£ocfre, 
in this week; im $?onat 5D?ap, in the month of May. In the 
same way it denotes duration of time ; e. g. er macf)t bk 0?etfe 
in brei ^Foc&en, he takes three weeks to the journey ; in Wentg 




ETYMOLOGY. 165 

©tttnben Farm tie 9?ad;vicf;t Fommen, within (after) a few hours 

the news may arrive. 

The preposition attf, like the English upon, relates to the 
upper side of things and in contact with them; e. g. attf bim 
XifcfK, upon the table; auf bcitt ^adje, upon the roof; auf 
bem Settfe, upon the hill. It is employed in a peculiar way, 
in order to denote the reference of a locality to any action or 
business; e. g. cv trttt auf bit fBitym, or auf ben ©dbauplag, 
he steps on the stage; ev n?o&nt auf bem £anbe, attf bem 

®0tfe, he lives in the country, in a village; et ift attf bet* (gee, 
auf bem ©dfnffe, he is at sea, on board the vessel; et ift attf 

bem 2Be#e, he is on the road ; ber £na&e fptelt auf bet ©ttage, 

the boy plays in the street; etuen Sttef auf bk $o|?, einen 
5Q?edbfci attf bk 2?btfe fcringen, to carry a letter to the post, a 
bill to the exchange; et t|t auf bet @c|mle, auf bet Unuxtjt'tat, 
attf bem ^edbtbobeil, he is at college, at the university, at the 
fencing-room. Thus we say also, et ift a IX f bit ^a^b, attf 

einet .jjocf^ett, auf bem Salic, auf bet Otetfe, auf bet glttcbt, 
he is at a hunting party, at a wedding, at a ball, on his 
journey, on the retreat. As a preposition of time, attf with 
the accusative case implies after ; e. g. attf 9?e#en folgt ©011= 
nenfcftein, sunshine comes after rain : or it denotes an appoint- 
ment, either for a point or for a duration of time ; e. g. et ift 

auf ben 5l6enb, auf ben etften 2D?at; 6e)teUt, he has been ap- 
pointed for the evening, for the first of May ; and id) l)abi 
ii)m ba$ £Bttd[> auf btet £a$e gelie&en, I lent him the book for 
three days. 

u6et, untet, vor, l;inter, nefcen. 

§ 149. 

The preposition u6et expresses those relations of locality 
which are expressed by the English above and over s e. g. 

u6et bin 2BolFen, above the clouds; u6et ben 2?et# #eljen, to 

go over the hill: and we also say, iihit etnen 3"Utj?> itBet eil e 
2)tU(fe #?l)en, to go across a river, a bridge. It implies beyond 
in expressions like u6et bem dH)ii\M, beyond the Rhine. Uefof 
with the accusative case as a preposition of time implies after; 

e. g. voir wetben un$ iifcet etn ^ai)* ttuebetfeljn, we shall see one 
another again after a year. 


1 66 ETYMOLOGY. 

Unter is opposite to u6er, and corresponds to the English 
under as well as to below ; e. g. unter bem ®rtcf)e, under the 
roof; unter bem 2toume, under the tree; id) fte^e unter il;m, 

I stand below him. It corresponds to among in expressions 
like ev if? lUlter ben £Brubern ber Bejle, he is the best among his 
brothers : and in this way generally follows the superlative 
of comparison ; e.g. er ijl bev fdbbnfie unter alien, he is the 
handsomest of them all. As a preposition of time, unter with 
the dative case implies during; e. g. unter ber $rebt#t, during 
the sermon. 

Ue&er and unter, the former with the accusative and the 
latter with the dative, are also applied to number and quan- 
tity ; e. g. u6er je&n 3al?re alt, above ten years old; Kmhm 
unter jieften ^al)\X\l, boys under seven years of age; u&er eme 
2)?etle, above a mile. 

2?or as a preposition of place is opposite to Winter; e. g. t>or 
unb Winter btm W(XQZlh before and behind the carriage; VOX 

ntetnen ^lu^en, and i;inter meinem 0?u(fen, before my eyes, and 

behind my back. As a preposition of time, VOX is always used 
with the dative case ; e. g. VOX ber .gocj^eit, before the wedding; 
VOX brei Xa>jen, three days ago. 

9?e&en implies vicinity in a collateral position ; e. g. ne6en 
bem 2©a$en, at the side of -the carriage; er fMlte fid) ueBeit 
mid), he placed himself at my side (not before me) ; bit folljl 
feme fremben ©otter ne6en mix l;a6en, thou shalt have no other 

gods beside me. 

Observation 1.— The use of Ob for iiber is obsolete, and occurs only in 

poetry; e.g. 06 bem Wtax fctng eine Gutter ©one*. Sch. 

Observation 2. — The proper use of prepositions requires particular atten- 
tion, as will be seen from the following examples ; where, by a mere differ- 
ence in the prepositions employed, the meaning of the sentence is entirely 
changed;— er WCfynt bet fetnem 25ruber, he lodges in his brother's house; 

er wobnt mtt fetnem 25ruber in btefem $aufe, he lives together with his 
brother in this house; er roofmt nebft etnem $ranjofen in btefem $aufe, 
he and a Frenchman live in this house; er arbettet bet etnem 9)?etfrer, he 

works with a master; er arbettet ttltt bem 9fteif?er, he works in company 

with the master; ber ©olbat jte&t in' 3 #elb, or gu $elbe, er fcmmt au$ 

bem #elbe, er fte&t in bem ^efbe, the soldier marches into the field (cam- 
paign), he returns from the field, he is in the field; ber 25auer gef)t auf 

bat $e(b, frimmt upn bem #elbe, arbettet auf bem #e(be, the farmer 
goes to, comes from, works in the field ; er gef)t £ U 3J?arfte, he goes to 


ETYMOLOGY. 167 

market; er ge&t aitf ben -3J?(Jtft, he goes to the market-place; 3 1| £)Cillfe, 
at home; i n bcm $aufe, in the house ; er ge&t n a $ $aufe, he goes Aom«/ 
t)on 0a u^, /row home; au£ bem £>aufe, from the house; in ein Canb 

ge^en, to go into a country; auf ba3 Oanb Jiefcett, to go fo the country 

(from town); an bat Canb gefjen, to go ashore ; er fi'ngt auf ber ©trufle, 
he sings in the open street ; er rcofjnt in etner en^en ©tra^e, he lives in 

a narrow street. 


Prepositions, improperly so called. 

§ 150. 

The prepositions, improperly so called (§ 142), are originally 
either substantives, simple or compound ; e. g. jratt, instead ; 
tnefieit$, on this side ; — or adverbs, e. g. Qtm'd§, according ; — 
or participles used as gerunds (§ 140), e.g. tt?Ct()t*erib, during: 
and the case governed by these prepositions is either the geni- 
tive attributive to the substantive (§ 172), e. g. fratt Ctne3 .£)Ute#, 
instead of a hat ; or the case governed by the adverb, e. g. $e= 
m'd$ bcm @efe$C, according to law; or the genitive of time or 
manner in agreement with the gerund (see § 188), e. g. wajwetlb 
be$ Rvk$Z§, during the war. On that account the governed 
case is frequently placed before the preposition ; e. g. ber RttoXlfc 
£>Ctt il?e#en, on account of the illness ; bem ©efc$e #emag, ac- 
cording to law. Only a few prepositions of this description 
express the relation of locality, most of them denoting rela- 
tions of time, of causality, of manner, &c. 

The following govern the genitive case :— jratt and anfffttt, 
instead of; augett)al6, without, on the outside; hlliet^alft, 
within, on the inside; ofcevtjalfc, above, on the upper side; 
Unter^alB, below, on the under side ; fcief|ett& on this side ; 
jtenfeit$, on the other side; tjalBer, ^alben, and tt)e#err, on 
account of; am — ttHtlen, for the sake of; fraft and tf entlb#e, by 
virtue of; (aut, according to; V0'til)m\b 9 during; Ult#eacr)tet, 
notwithstanding; Uttfteit, near, not far from; tWttttttclj?, by 
means of; £ttfol#e, according to ; tfO$, in spite of; ltill#3, 
along. Xvo$ and lanc}3j however, are also used with the 
dative case, and $ltfol$e governs either the dative or the geni- 
tive case, according as it either follows or precedes the sub- 
stantive ; e. g. bem $ericf)te jufblge, and jufol^e be$ 2?ertc()te£, 
according to the report. 


168 ETYMOLOGY. 

The following govern the dative case :— fammt, .together 
with ; vuicbjT, next ; fctt, since ; $im&§ 9 according ; CjCCjCnuBcr, 
opposite to ; £UttHbeV 9 against, in opposition to. 

The accusative case is governed by fovibcv and obttC, without 
(Lat. sine) ; 6i3, till ; and Ciltlanq, along, (gntlaru}, however, 
if standing before the substantive, governs the genitive case. 
The preposition ^uufcben, between, betwixt, governs either the 
accusative or the dative case, according as it denotes either 
motion or rest. 

Observation. — The prepositions ftatt, anftcttt, come from the obsolete 

©tatt GState), place- fcaftcn, fcai6er, auffer&alfr, inner&alb, &c. from the 

obsolete Jpalbe, which implies side; uermbge, from tierjltogCIt, to be able; 
taut, from £aut, the sound; wcflen, from 2BeCj, way; fammt, from the ob- 
solete fammen, to collect ; fonber, from fonbeni,to separate ; and jwtfcfcen, 
from 3 WCt, two. 

§ 151. 
The signification of the following prepositions requires to 
be particularly attended to : — 

2£cqcn, M6en (&ftl6er), and nm — WilUti, imply a motive; e.g. 

tt ttubt feme$ franfen .£it$e£ mc#cn, or £al6en, or um M 

franfen J£mOC$ UPilUtl £U .pailfc, he stays at home on account 
of his sick child. These prepositions, however, are not syno- 
nymous : tttCgetl denotes a motive in an indefinite way; e.g. 

cr gei^t n>c,qcn feiner ©efunb^eit \wcb 3taltcu, he goes to Italy 
on account of his health; cr vmfyxt tbn mc#cn fcinel 2?crmb= 

$cn$ 5 he courts him on account of his fortune. Physical 
cause however, if preventing an action, is also expressed by 
n>c t qcn; e.g. cr fami mc#cn bev ,Qi$t 9 or wc^ch bc$ £arm$ 
Htd)t fd)lafcn, he cannot sleep on account of the heat, or on 
account of the noise. .£jat6cn denotes a particular motive 
which we wish to distinguish from another; e. g. cr tljilt b(X$ 
bet 4 (£(}VC Ijal6ci1, he does so for the sake of the honour (not 
for the sake of reward); id) Bin VdXX bcimtljalbcn (jier&cr 
#cfommcn, I came here only on your account (not on mine). 
Um — UnllCN refers to wish or interest ; e. g. um ©Ottc£ millcn, 
Itm bc3 .gimmelS millcn, for God's sake, for heaven's sake; 
um bc£ ^icbcils WiUcn, for the sake of peace*. 

* Um ifyrer 9?uf)e roUien mug e$> if»t uerfdE>n?tegen roettfen. Sch. 
Um unfer* ©InufrenS rviUen bufbet fte. Sch. 




ETYMOLOGY. 169 

2>cvnfba,e, fraft, taut, and ^ufelqe, denote causes, viz. tjewtoge 
a physical cause, and fraft a moral one : laitt refers especially 
to the contents of words, either spoken or written. Thus, tie 
.Qtmmel^forper Bennett jtcb femtbge i^rcr ^ccjenfeitiqen 3ln^tcs 
l)imq, the heavenly bodies move in consequence of their mutual 

attraction; ba$ i£jol$ fdbnrinttttt mrmbge fetner ^erhtcjeren 

©Cljnxre attf bent Gaffer, wood floats upon the water in conse- 
quence of being less heavy; ev ttjttt e3 ftCtft fehtcS $lntte£, or 
fraft be3 er^altenen ^luftracjc^, he does it in virtue of his 
office, in virtue of the charge received by him ; Jufol#C bet 
2?erfltcfje, according to experiments ; etner £el)Ve ^Itfolge, ac- 
cording to a doctrine; laitt be$ 3Mef3, according to the 
letter; I a tit bet Urfltnbe, according to the document. 

©emafj denotes conformity; e. g. ber ©itte gem aft accord- 
ing to custom ; bent ©efe^e gent aft according to law ; feiuem 
filter g etna ft according to his age. 

©eit not only denotes, like the English since and from, the 
commencement of a space of time, — e. g. tcb lja6e il)H feit bent 
Xobe feine3 2?ater$, or feit feittem erffeti (grfdbeimti tticjrt gefefoen, 

I have not seen him since the death of his father, or from his 
tirst appearance, — but also the duration of time itself; e. g. 

id) l;abe il)n feit etnem ^atyre ntdbt gefe&en, I have not seen him 
for a whole year; ev if! feit glffti jaI)Ven tobt, he has been 
dead these two years. 

©anttnt, like neBjt (§ 145), does not imply a relation of 
locality, but denotes that two or more persons or things 
already connected with one another are in the same predica- 
ment; e. g. ber 2>ater fantntt feittcnt ©ol)nc, the father together 
wz'Mhisson; ev Ijat ba$ <Qau$ fantntt ben 3)?b&eln retfauft, 
he sold the house together with the furniture *. ©attttnt has 
frequently also the preposition mit before it; e. g. nttt fantntt 

ben 33?c6eln. 

%3i§, as a preposition of time, corresponds to the English 
tills e. g. er fdblaft bis $l)X\ Ul;r, he sleeps till ten o'clock; 
6t3 l^eute, till this day. It is used also as a preposition of 
place, in connection with another preposition of place, and 

* 93?u0t bu, um Grmen @d)u(bi<jcn ju treffen, t>a$ @d)tff mit fnmmt bem ©truer* 
manti uerberben ') Sch. 

Wid) fammt meinem 9?egtmente bring' id) bem £ersog. Sch. 


170 ETYMOLOGY. 

then implies as far as ; e. g. 6i$ an ba$ X(J0V, as far as the 
gate; 6tg nacfi Bonbon, «5yar as London; 6t$ ii6er bte 
Shtiif C, to the other side of the bridge. Q3i$ is moreover used 
as an adverb, to denote a number not accurately stated ; e. g. 
%d)n hi§ pvtif ©ulben, ten to twelve florins; e£ (nib Vkt hi$ 
fuilf .0aufcV a6^c6tannt, about four or five houses are burnt 
down. 

The preposition frauSeil (tjalBet) always stands after the case 
governed; e.g. bet (£§Xi f}al6eit, for the sake of honour. It 
is frequently contracted with the substantive ; and when the 
latter is feminine, the obsolete genitive case is frequently re- 
tained ; e. g. (^renlmlBer, @efuiibl}eit#at6ev, for the sake of 

honour, of health; 5lrmut3f}al6ev, on account of poverty. 

©e#emt6eVj ^UUnber, and entlang, also are commonly placed 
after the case governed ; e. g. bcm .gaufe gtgZtlixbtt, opposite 
the house; bent @efe$e ^UttHbev, against the law; t>tn %&alb 
enticing, along the wood, (fntlawj however occurs also stand- 
ing before the substantive *. 

The prepositions VOtyW, Ull#eadbtet, ^ufbl^e, and $m'd§, may 
stand after the governed case as well as before it. In the ex- 
pression V OH 0Mjt3 Wegettj by virtue of the laws, the obsolete 
use of the preposition x>011 before lK#en has been retained. 
Um — WilUn is always separated by the substantive placed be- 
twixt um and ttutlen; e. g. um be3 @elbe$ WilUn, for the sake 
of the money. $lnjiatt may be separated in the same way ; 
e.g. an @clbe$ ©tatt, instead of money. 

When nxqen, &al6cn, and um — Wilkn, are connected with 
the genitive case of one of the personal pronouns, they are 
contracted with them, the euphonical t however being placed 

between them (§ so) ; e. g. metnetl;>al6eii, behiettvegen, am wis 
fevtnntten, &c. 

The preposition fonbcv is now obsolete. 

* SBir fatten fcfyon ben ganjen Xaq Qejaqt cntianq bn$ Sffiatbgcfcirge. Sch. 




ETYMOLOGY. 171 


Chapter VIII. — Of Conjunctions. 

% 152. 

Conjunctions are words by which two simple sentences are 
connected with one another into a compound sentence ; e. g. he 
arrived and I departed ; he arrived when I departed. When 
two sentences connected one with another have either the 
same subject, or the same predicate, or another essential part 
common to both sentences, — e. g. he eats and he drinks, my 
brother drinks and my sister drinks, — the two sentences are 
frequently contracted into one sentence ; e. g. he eats and 
drinks, my brother and my sister drink. In this case also the 
conjunction in fact connects two sentences, though it appears 
to connect only two words. 

Conjunctions do not express notions, but merely the rela- 
tions of sentences one to another ; they are accordingly of the 
description of relational words (§ 1). Two sentences are con- 
nected either byway of subordination, or by way of co-ordina- 
tion. They are connected by way of subordination, when one 
of them can be considered as standing in place of a substan- 
tive, adjective, or adverb, which is a factor of a combination 
(§ 11, 12, 13) ; e. g. he reported that the king died (the death 
of the king) ; the foreigner who travels (the travelling foreigner) ; 
he was at work before the sun rose (early). The conjunctions 
which express a connection of this description (that, who, 
before) may be termed subordinative conjunctions. Two sen- 
tences are, on the other hand, connected by way of co-ordina-» 
tion, when they are not in this manner dependent one upon 
the other ; e. g. he is ill, and he has called a physician ; he 
goes to Germany, but he cannot speak German ; he cannot 
work, for he is ill : the conjunctions which express a con^ 
nection of this description (and, but, for), we call co-ordinative 
conjunctions. Of the subordinative conjunctions we shall 
treat in the Syntax (see chapter on compound sentences) ; in 
this place therefore we consider only the co-ordinative con^ 
junctions. 


172 ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 153. 

The co-ordinative conjunctions are conjunctions proper, 
if they express merely the relation of one sentence to the 
other; e.g. tmb, and; and), also ; after, atteitt, fonbeni, but; 
ruiirilid), namely; erttttjeber, either; ober, or; bcrm, for; alfo, 
consequently. Many co-ordinative conjunctions, on the other 
hand, must in reference to the predicate be considered at the 
same time as adverbs, denoting either a relation of place or 
time ; e. g. aufetbem, besides ; bemi, then ; fewer, further ; — 
or a relation of causality; e. g. baljer, thence; be3tte$en, bat- 
um 9 therefore; bemnacf), fotttit, Within, accordingly; — or a 
relation of mood ; e.g. tt*eber, neither; nod), nor; $letC&tt>ol, 
$\V>at, however; bod[), benwadb, nevertheless (§ 10). The con- 
junctions of this description we call conjunctional adverbs. 

Conjunctions proper generally stand at the head of the 
sentence, with the exception of aBer, aticfr, and al r C, which 
may be placed either at the head or in the middle of the sen- 
tence. Conjunctional adverbs, on the other hand, are in respect 
of their position treated like other adverbs. (See § 207.) 

The co-ordinative conjunctions are Copulative, Adversative, 
or Causal. In general, copulative conjunctions, as unb, and, 
serve to enlarge or complete a thought by adding another sen- 
tence : adversative conjunctions, as after, but, on the other 
hand, limit the thought expressed in an antecedent sentence : 
and causal conjunctions, as bcnn, for, serve to express a rela- 
tion of causality. 

Copulative Conjunctions. 

§ 154. 

We comprehend under this head, besides the copulative 
conjunctions proper (tuib, and; and}, also; ^ubcm, moreover; 
augerbem, besides; vudjt nur, ntdbt allem, fonbevn, not only, but; 

fbittol al3, as well as), also the ordinal conjunctions erflen^, CV(t= 
lid), in the first place ; barm, then ; femcr, moreover ; enblidb, 
lastly; the disjunctive conjunction tt)eil$ — ttjdlv, on one hand and 
on the other; and the explanative conjunctions n&lllltdb, namely: 
al$, and; Wic, as. The copulative conjunctions are used in 




ETYMOLOGY. 173 

German in the same way as the corresponding conjunctions in 
English. 

3lid)t nut — fonbef n and) always refers to a consequent which 
is regarded as surpassing the antecedent; e. g. er ftat mcfrt 
nut cm $au§ fonbern em #cm$e$ (But #efauft, he bought not 

only a house to a whole estate; er i)at n\d)t Wilt il)n $elo6t, 
fonbent ifyn aud) bdofynt, he not only praised but rewarded 
him. 9?tcf)t allein— fonbeni is applied rather to a consequent 
which is merely regarded as different from the antecedent ; 

e.g. er i)at nidbt nut fern 2?ermb5en fonbern and) feme ©e= 

funb^Cit f erloven, he has lost both his fortune and his health ; 

ntcfrt alUin ber $raber fonbern and) bte @c|m>efrer roar ba, 

there was not only the brother, to also the sister. 9?i$t 6loj? — 
fonbem differs from both, and is applied to a consequent, which 
in some manner belongs to the antecedent; e. g. er wfpvicfrt 

nid)X hi og btr fceijuftfiefjen, fonbern er with btr nmflicj) fcetfte 
()en, he not only promises to assist you, but he will really 
assist you. 

Adversative Conjunctions. 

Of this description are the conjunctions, a6er, alkin, but; 
ntdbt — fonbern, not — but ; entnxber — ober, either — or ; weber — 
liodb, neither — nor; fonf?, or else; bami (benn), unless; bodb, 
jebodb> yet, however; bennodb, beffenmi^eacbtet, nevertheless; 
|)m#e#en, on the contrary; tnbefTen, #letd[)tt;of, however. 

5(6er, alkin, fonbern, and (tittgegCti> though rendered in Eng- 
lish by the same conjunction, but, differ one from another. 
5l6er denotes the limitation of an antecedent by the consequent 
in the most indefinite way, and implies only that the conse- 
quent is different from what is comprehended or supposed to 
be comprehended in the antecedent; e. g. er if? fe()r reicfc ahtt 
er iff and) V00l)Wati$, he is very rich, but he is also charitable; 
er ipvid)t beutfcfc a6er nidbt Qdtiufig, he speaks German, but 
not fluently; er fmt wrfprodben, after er wirb attcb 2£ort fatten, 

he gave his promise, but he will also keep his word ; @aul fyat 

taufenb #efd;la#en, Satnb a&er $e£>n taufenb, Saul hath slain 


174; ETYMOLOGY. 

his thousand, but David ten thousand*. $l6er, on account 
of its indefinite signification, may stand together with other 
adversative conjunctions, as bod), bennodf), in the same sen- 
tence, villein, on the other hand, expresses a decided negation 
of what might be inferred from the antecedent ; e. g. er ijr fet)r 
retdb, alletn er tft #ei$t#, he is very rich (and might be cha- 
ritable), but he is a miser; er will beutfcfj lernen, alletn er 
ftnbct feinen £et)rer, he wishes to learn German (and will pro- 
bably do so), but he finds no teacher; er tfcvfpricbt alle$, a6er 
iX r)alt ntcf)t 2Bort, he promises every thing, but he does not 
keep his word. 5l6er may always be employed instead of 
allem, but not vice versa. ©onbem is only employed after a 
negation in the antecedent; e. g. er ijr nicf)t em (?n#lanber 
fonbern eilt %tcm%0% he is not an Englishman but a French- 
man ; id) fm&e nidbt #efc()lafen fonbern $ear6ettet, I was not 
sleeping but working. .j$mge$en denotes that the consequent 
is in some measure contrary to the antecedent; e. g. er bat 

tnel $efd;abet, er £at I}tn#e#en and) tnel #enu$t, he has done 

much harm, but on the other hand he has also done much 
good. 

The conjunction bocfj denotes a negation of what might be 
inferred from the antecedent, either as its cause or motive, or 
as its effect or consequence ; e. g. er Wat in ber ©efcllfcfjaft im& 
er n?ar bodb ntdbt em#elaben, he was in the company though he 

had not been invited; er trauct trtir nicfjt, unb tdb tja&e ifmt 
bocfy 2}ettxife t>on meiner greunbfcbaft $e#e6en, he mistrusts me, 

though I gave him proofs of my affection ; er i)at alle$ Wd$ er 
UHtnfcbt unb i|r bod) VJtdbt ^ufrieben, he has every thing he 
wishes for and still he is not satisfied f . ^OCTj is employed 
especially when the speaker passes over to another object; 


* ©emtet fyaben wit oom Untergnng bnS 9Md); abet je^t fd)on fuf)(t man nid)t 
mtt)t Die SKk^ltfynt. Sch. 

2)te fremben dtobetet fommen unb gefyen ; abet wit bteiben (Teljen. Sch. 

f Wean gerietf) nnfye genug an etnnnber, bod) nur aU Steunb, aU ©<ift ftdf> ju bewit-- 
tfyen. Sch. 

®am £>eutfd)(nnb feufjte untct ^trtege^fnft, bod) fttiebe \va?$ itn 2Qatten|tein' \d)tn 
Snger. Sch. 

£>ie fynoen Unred)t, bie bid) fttrdjteten unb bod) bie 9)?<id)t bir in bie Spanbe gn&en. Sch. 

3d) n>ei|3, ba$ gebiegene SOeiSfjeit <iue end) wbet; bod) bie\'e S&eityeit, n>e(d)e 5B(ut 
Oefiet)(t, id) fyafTe fie. 


ETYMOLOGY. 175 

e. g. man fonnte iifcer biefe @adbe triel fa#en, bod) ba$ $el;brt 
nicfrt fcterfcer, or bodb lajjt un3 t?on etn>a3 Shiberm fyredben, we 
might say a great deal on this subject, but it does not be- 
long to this place ; or, but let us speak of another subject. 2>en= 
ttOCf) is employed only when an effect or a consequence inferred 
from the antecedent is to be denied ; e. g. er ifr brettttal ein#a= 
taben Itnb bennocfr nidbt ^efommen, he has been asked three 
times, notwithstanding which he is not come ; id) fyaht il)\xi 

2?enmfe metner greunbfcbaft $e#eben, tinb bennodb trauet er mir 

ntcj)t, I gave him proofs of my affection, and still he mistrusts 
me *. ^odb is used instead of bennodb, but not vice versa. — 
3cbocf) denotes in an indefinite way what might possibly be 
inferred from an antecedent ; e. g. er i)at ii)m JVelK $ett;an, 
jebodb o£)ne 5l6jtcf)t, he has hurt him, but without intention ; 

e3 nnrb ntcbt ^elincjen, jtebocb ma$ft bit d wrfucben, it will not 

succeed, yet you may try. J*^ ^ never stands together with 
either unb, after, or another conjunction, as bod) and bennodf) 
frequently do. ©letcfrwol and inbeffen denote a less decided 

opposition than bod) and bennocfj ; e. g. er i;>at fe^t* rcenig Qi- 
Unit, er nxig gleidlwofc or inbefTen fomel al3 fein ©efdfjaft 
crforbert, he has learnt very little, he knows however as much 
as his business requires, 
©onff and benn (barm), for which also e$ fei bemi, bag, is 

used, both denote a conditional negation :— fonfl denotes that 
the antecedent conditionally negatives the consequent ; benn, 
on the other hand, that the consequent negatives the antece- 
dent; e.g. bu mugt fparen, fonjr wit ft ba barBen, you must 
save, or else you will suffer want ; and bu. ttur|? bar&en, e$ fei 
benn, bag ba fparej?, or bu fparefl benn, you will suffer want 
unless you save. 

Observation. — 2)0$ has the same adversative signification in many ex- 
pressions, in which a negation or doubt referred to is not distinctly stated, 
but merely understood ; in these cases it cannot be translated into English, 
and the sense is expressed in different ways; e. g. \a b0$, yes to be sure 
(after a doubt has been raised); or simply, bod), yes (after a question con- 
taining a negation); er #ef)t b0# (accented) mtt Utt$, he does go with us; 
but er gefct beef) (unaccented) mtt tm£, he is sure to go with us? gefje bo# 

* tBetfretyen fotten fie mir in tneinen Spfntien, unb bennocfy nicfyts bnUi ju ftftyen 
i)(\i}tn. Sch. 


176 ETYMOLOGY. 

mit un£, do go with us, pray go with us; i# mocfrte boct? wiffen, still I 
should like to know, &c. 

Causal Conjunctions. 

§156. 

They are bent), for ; alfo, folcjlid;, tmt&ill, accordingly, con- 
sequently; b a [Kty therefore; bcgtt^en, begljalfr, on account of 
that ; barum, for that purpose ; bemnacb, according to. The 
cause referred to is either physical or logical (a reason), or 
moral (a motive). T>emi, alfo, folglid), and benmac{>, are ap- 
plied to a logical cause; e.g. er if? fdbulbi#, benn er i)at bci$ 
2?er6recben Cin^ejlatlbcil, he is guilty, for he has confessed his 

crime; and er fjatba3 2?er6rcdben em#ef?anben, alfo or fol# I id) 
or nutjjtn or bemnacb if? er fcbulbi^- 2)ef?n?e#en, bej^alD, 

and bantm, denote a moral cause ; e. g. fetne Xocf)ter if? fvanf, 

er 6lei6t befjtawqen or beg^alB or baxnm ^u «0aufe, his daughter 

is ill, on that account he stays at home. Sajjet' alone denotes 
a physical cause; e.g. wir f)a6en Stforbttmib, ba^er if? e£ fait, 
we have a north-wind, which makes it cold ; er if? fef)r #efallu), 
ba^er if? er 6et Sebermamt fcetie&t, he is very obliging, which 
makes him a favourite with everybody. 

We commonly employ tetltt, when a reason, and alfo, fbl#- 
lid), Within, when a consequence is to be pointed out. Semi 
stands at the head of the sentence expressing a reason *. If 
berm or bcmn stands as a conjunctional adverb (§ 153) in a 
sentence expressing a consequence, it corresponds to the En- 
glish then, and refers to a reason either expressed, or only un- 
derstood ; e. g. fo if! e$ berm Wal)t, it is then true f. In the 
same way alfo is frequently employed in reference to a reason ; 

e. g. e$ if? alfo watyr, it is true then ; e3 ift alfo him .0offmm# 

tnet;r, then there is no hope left. ©ettWfldb (from nacj), accord- 
ing to) is less positive than alfo and fol^ltcf)? and denotes rather 
a conformity to the antecedent; e.g. er t)at VOX brei Xa#en bk 


* 9Botn>arte mu£t bu, benn riitftuartS fnnnft bu ntd)t mefji:. Sch. 

2)ir jtemt e6 nid)t ju ricfyten, nod) ju flrafett, benn bid) emport ber Sugenb fyeftig 
fcrnufenb ©hit. ScA. 

f 2)icS ifl bet £ag, bet mtr £unbe fcringt uon ifyrem 2Injug, feib benn frereit &ie 
£errfct)er ju empfnngen. ScA. 

SKJctfen i»ir einanbcr benn r\v\) fcefefyben. Sch. 


ETYMOLOGY. 177 

Stabt wlaffen tuib fa mi be 11111 a cf) fceute l;ier anfommen, he 

left town three days ago, and may accordingly arrive here to- 
day. The conjunctions befjtt^eil, begl)al6, and bartrot, differ 
in their signification, like the prepositions Wt%Ztl 9 IjalBeil, and 

um— nullen (§ 151); e.g. cr tjatmicf) eimnal Betro^eri, begnje^en 

tvatte kfy tt)m nicf)t, he once deceived me, on that account I do 
not trust him; ber 2Bem roadbt ifyn franf, beg £ a 16 trinft er 
^afler, wine makes him ill, on that account (not from fru- 
gality) he drinks water; cr will vetfen, barum lenit er franco; 
jifdb, he intends to travel, therefore he learns French *. 


* 2)efhuegen ftfeifc tcf) fyier wt'xi e» bid) oert>rtef5t. Sch. 
3d) ivilf fie Oefmen, barum tun tcf) f)iet. SWi. 


Part II. 

SYNTAX. 


Chapter I. — Syntax of the Predicative Combination. 

§ 157. 
A predicative combination, as you write, the father writes, 
constitutes a sentence (§11)? and expresses an action (writing), 
which is asserted to be the action of a person or thing (you, 
the father). The action asserted to be the action of a person 
or thing is termed the Predicate of the sentence, and the per- 
son or thing to which an action is in this way referred is the 
Subject of the sentence. 

The unity of the thought expressed by the predicative com- 
bination, and by the whole sentence, is denoted by the unity 
of the principal accent, which is always taken by the predicate 
as the principal factor ; and when the predicate is enlarged 
into an objective combination (§ 13), by the principal factor of 
that combination (§ 14, 15). The unity of the thought is fre- 
quently expressed in a still stronger manner by omitting the 
subject and all other parts of the sentence, which have the 
subordinate accentuation ; the whole sentence being thus re- 
presented by the predicate alone ; or when this consists of an 
objective combination, by the principal factor of that combina- 
tion ; e. g. #etV0ff?n instead of bll fyaft e3 #etroffen, you have hit 
it; #emt#, (it is) enough; #ttte 9?adf)t, (I wish you a) good 
night. In German these ellipses (§ 17) are very frequently 
employed, especially in the imperative mood; e. g. ttnUfotlt- 
ttietl ! welcome ! frill ! be silent ! VOXCM, go on ! (ar$fam ! 
slowly ! .gulfc ! help ! * (See § 169.) 

* 9?ur nrtyer, nafjev ! ret>(td)er 3)iego. Sch. 


SYNTAX. 1 79 

§158. 

The subject of the sentence may be expressed by a rela- 
tional word, viz. a pronoun, as well as by a notional word, 
viz. a substantive. The predicate, on the other hand, because 
it contains the principal idea of the whole sentence, is gene- 
rally expressed by a notional word ; and because it implies an 
action, this word is either a verb or an adjective. In expres- 
sions like fret ©tUtm iff VQViihet, the storm is over; fcie geit 
be$ @ptelen3 ijf VOVbti, the time of playing is over; mem 
gofm ijf $imtcf, my son is come back; bat ©piel iff ail$, the 
play is over ; the relational adverbs tiOVu6er, VOV&ei, ^Uriicf, &c. 
stand by way of ellipsis instead of the compound participles 

voxubitQzgcmgm, vor6ci#e$an#en, ^umcr^eforomen, &c. in which 

they have the power of notional words (^ 59) : and in expres- 
sions like et iff tin %'tinhx, he is a quarreller ; ev iff tin ^ie6, 
he is a thief; et iff bet' D3?emtm$, he is of opinion; the substan- 
tive connected with the relational verb fein, to be, has the sig- 
nification of a verb (he quarrels, steals, thinks). The predica- 
tive genitive of abstract substantives is frequently employed in 
this way in the place of a predicative adjective ; e. g. et iff 
# lite 3 $?tlt&e& he is in good spirits (happy) ; ba§ iff hti Ml£ 
9?ecf)ten$, that is lawful with us # . Relational adjectives can- 
not well stand in the place of the predicate unless a substan- 
tive be understood ; e. g. ev iff em fokfrer, he is such (a person); 
er iff itneber bet tf 0Vi#e, he is again the same (person) as he was 
formerly. The possessive pronouns however are used also as 
predicates when possession is to be pointed out with emphasis ; 
e.g. bft£ $au$ iff je$t be in, this house is now thine f. Rela- 
tional adverbs standing in the place of the predicate, — as in 
expressions like, it was here, it was today only, it was just now, 
that he said so, — are not conformable to the German idiom. 
Those expressions therefore must be translated differently ; 
e. g. Ijiev, tiodb l;eute, erff e&en ^at er e$ ^efa^t. We admit 
however of expressions like er iff (jier, he is here ; er iff bptt, 


* Gr(tfrt6etf) tft mettieS <=3trtmme8 unb 9?<uige$. Sch. 

3()r matt fo i (it ten Sitter 5 nod). Sch. 

Zfyut ronS Quires 2fmte$ ift. Sch. 
f 2>ein tfl. t>er 3?uf>m. SfcA.—Sev ^preis fel tnetn. Sch, 
n 2 


180 SYNTAX. 

he is there ; in which the verb fein has the signification of the 
notional words to live, to dwell. Cardinal and indefinite nu- 
merals also can scarcely be placed alone in the place of the 
predicate ; and when mere number or quantity is to be asserted 
by the predicate, as we were three, the brothers are many, they 
are few, the subject is always connected with the numeral, and 
placed in the genitive case, the indefinite pronoun e$ taking 
the place of the subject; e. g. e$ ttniven imfct 4 bvet, e£ fi'nb bet 

2Mtber vide, e$ fnib ifyut wmi& d ijr be? (Mbe$ feE;v n>em#. 

Mere existence is in German, as in English, always expressed 
in a similar way; e.g. e£ ifr eitie btUlfle Stfacfrt, it is a dark night; 
e3 ifl em ©enutter, there is a thunderstorm; e3 jtnb je$t bvet 
2$0Cfrev?, it is now three weeks : or by means of the impersonal 
verb e3 gi&t (§ 67); e. g. e3 #i6t beige Quellen, there are hot 
springs. 

In German, ordinal numerals, if standing as predicates, are 
always used substantively, and take the article ; e.g. bit 6tjt bev 
(?r(re, unb idb bev Sritte, you are first, and I am third. 

§159. 

The subject of the sentence always stands in the nominative 
case. When the imperative mood is made use of, a person 
being addressed in the second person singular or plural, the 
subject is omitted, as in English ; e. g. fa$e mtV, tell me. But 
when, as is usually done, a person is addressed in the third 
person singular or plural (§ 121), the subject is expressed by 
the pronoun of that person; e.g. faqe (£v miv, frt#en @ie mir. 

The subject of impersonal verbs is, as in English, expressed 
by the indefinite pronoun e? ; e. g. e$ ve$net, it rains. This 
pronoun however is commonly omitted, when the passive 
voice of intransitive verbs is used impersonally (e. g. e$ ttnvb 
#tfatl$U they are dancing), or one of those impersonal forms 
by which the subject of an intransitive action is turned into an 
object (e. g. e£ biujtet mid), I am thirsty — § 67) are placed in 
an accessory sentence or in the inverted construction ; e. g. 
Wemi Setan^t Wirb, if they are dancing; l;eute ttnvb #etan$t, to- 
day they dance ; wevm bid) buvjlet, mid) btivftet. 

When the subject of a principal sentence is to be pointed 
out with emphasis, the subject is placed after the inflected 




SYNTAX. 181 

verb, and the indefinite pronoun e$ takes its place before the 
verb; e. g. e£ iff em hornet erfcfnenett, a comet has made its 
appearance; e$ tfr ein 3Mf flefcfrofletl WOrben, a wolf has been 
shot; e3 fommt Chi (Senritter, a thunderstorm is coming*. 

Persons. 

§ 160. 

The relations of personality, time, and mood, are expressed 
in the predicative combination by the inflection of the verb or 
of its auxiliary verbs ; or, if an adjective or a substantive stands 
in the place of the predicate, by the inflection of the rela- 
tional verb fetn. The predicative adjective, as well as the 
participle of compound tenses, is not inflected. 

Predicative substantives agree with the subject in case and 
number, unless they stand in predicative genitives (§ 158). 
In names of persons the gender also is distinguished when 
their form admits of this distinction; e. g. fte ift CJUC ^ieSttt, 
she is a thief; fie if* meilie §reitnfctn, she is my friend. 

Common names usually have an article before them ; when 
however they express not so much an individual, as a rank, 
profession, or condition, they commonly are without an article ; 
e. g. er ijr ©olbat, he is a soldier ; er iff: j?aufniarm, he is a 
merchant ; ev ift 5J3atV, he is a peer. 

When an adjective in the superlative degree, formed by 
simple comparison (§ 117), stands as a predicate, it is always 
used substantively with the definite article ; e. g. er iff bcr 
flti$fk, he is the wisest. When it stands in an adverbial form, 
the relational verb fein, to be, is considered as a notional verb; 
e. g. mi ©ommer (nib bie Xa#e am lan#ffen, the days are (last) 
longest in summer ; 5ie Dvaii^en ji'nb am fcejlen in 3>talien, the 

oranges are best in Italy. 

§ 161. 
The verb, as in English, agrees with the subject of the sen- 
tence in person and number. When in a contracted sentence 


* G?S umringt Ujn btc jufcefnbe @rf)rtnt. Sch. 
Q§ iefcen ©otter, bie ben £od)mutf) Widfyeti. Sch. 


182 SYNTAX. 

(§ 152) the same predicate refers to two or more subjects, the 
verb stands in the plural number; e. g. .Qitfi imb R'dlti ftnb 
fdjjablicf), heat and cold are hurtful *. The singular number 
however is also employed in German, especially when two or 
more subjects may be conceived as constituting one general 

notion; e.g. .gopfen imb 3D?al$ i\i an tl;m ferloren, hops and 

malt (all labour) is lost on him ; [)kv jref)t ©al^ imb ^feffer, 
here stand salt and pepper f . 

After two subjects, one of which is in the first and the other 
in the second or third person, the verb stands in the first; and 
after two subjects in the second and third persons, the verb 
stands in the second person plural ; e. g. 3$ Unb £>u W i (f c n e& 
I and you know that ; 2>tt unb bev 2?atev werbet e£ fe|>en, thou 
and thy father will see it. It is more usual however to add a 
personal pronoun in the plural number, comprehending both 
subjects; e. g. 3$ unb 2)u, Jvir-wiffen e$; S)u unb bet 4 2?ater, 
3^v werbet e$ fe|>en. 

After collectives (§ 6) in the singular number, the German 
verb always stands in the same number; e. g. bit 5)?en$e #e£)t 
bem 2?er#nu#en nadb, the multitude pursue pleasure ; ber dxati) 
Wat in feiner D3?eimm# #Ct(}etlt, the council were divided in 
their opinion. The verb takes the plural however after em 
$Ctar, a pair, a couple ; cine 3J?en$C, a number ; em £tt$enb, a 
dozen; and some other substantives used as indefinite nume- 
rals (§ 133); e. g. em $aax fitiuftx finb ab^eBrannt, two or 
three houses have been burnt; eine $?en$e «£)afen ftnb $C= 
fcfjoflen iVDrben, a great number of hares have been killed. 

Tenses, 

§162. 

The present tense is employed whenever the predicate co- 
incides in time with the present existence of the speaker; e. g. 
bie Sonne #cljt je§t Uilter, the sun is now setting; ba& d\ai> 

* 'Wit r oft en in bet £ot(e 4>e(tu unb ©d)ilb. Sch. 
"@d)i>nf)ett unb 3ugenb trnten in tfjre ootten 9?ed)te nneber em. Sch. 
- f SBerrati) unb 3teflrooijti tnu f df> t in <it(en (Ftfen. Sch. 
lint fie frufyU bie Suaenb unb bnS Sifter. /SfcA. 
5Bcrt*ri)>u p rt fid) £<i£ unt Stefre mid) ju fdjretfen ? Sch. 
2)ie Drgef unb bcr (Sfjorgefnng mo net mctnrm £ftr. Uhland. 


SYNTAX. 183 

BettKflt ftdb, the wheel is moving: and when no relation of 
time at all is distinguished in the predicate ; e. g. fcne (E)0nne 
#e|)t in 2Bef?en unter, the sun sets in the west; bk (?rbe 6e= 

tt>e#t jtcb Uttt bte Sonne, the earth moves round the sun; ba$ 
£e6en be£ 2D?enfdben i(r fltt> the life of man is short. The 
distinction expressed in English by the forms he speaks and 
he is speaking, is not pointed out in German by any particular 
forms. 

The future time also is frequently expressed in German by 
the present, when the relation of time does not require to be 
pointed out; e. g. id) gef)e moreen nacf) Conbon, I go to London 
tomorrow; tcf) tetfe halh md) Seatfc^tanb, I shall soon travel 
to Germany*. 

The present tense serves instead of the future, especially 
when the certainty of a future event is to be insisted upon ; 
e.g. Bitte u)n vwr, fo gi6t er bit alk$, m$ bit rtnltjr, request 
him only, and he will give you every thing you wish for; id) 
Will u)n Bitten ahiX er t|)Ut e$ nic&t, 1 shall request him, but he 
will not do it f. 

The present tense is also used instead of the imperfect in 
an historical narrative, in order to render the style more ani- 
mated ; and this practice is more common in German than in 
English %. 

The first and second future tenses are employed in the same 
way as in English; e.g. er ttntb tttOV#en aSvetfen, he will set 

out tomorrow; ivemi bcin SBntbev fbmmt, witb ev un£ t»etlaf= 

fen f)a6en, he will have left us by the time when your brother 
arrives. 

The perfect always refers a past time to the present exist- 
ence of the speaker only; e. g. id) tyaht biefen 3)?or#en behien 


* S&et wei6, net mDtgen u 6 er unS befiefjlt. Sch. 
@o gewifj bie (Sonne motgen wiebetf ef; rt in if)tet Siatfyeit, fo unau$o(eip(irf) 
fbmmt bet Xaq bet S&atjtfyeit. Sch. 
f 2)ie$ @d)(o|3 etfteigen wit in biefet Sftac^t, wit etmotben tie -fyutev, teigen 
bid) nu£ beinem Summer. Sch. 
SSerlnf? bid) btauf, id) i(i)'\'e fedjtenb fjier bn$ Sefcen, obet fi'tfyte fie au& Spit* 

fen. Sch. 
2)u roiftft, unb biefe ftetten fatten. Sch. 
t £)a witb ein 2tuffauf in bem @d)tog, ein 93od)en fdjrecft unfet Dl)t, wit 9 (nib 
6 en bie 33efteier ju uernefjmen, bie £offnung wtnft, ©it ^>au(et ift'S, bet 
un$ u e 1 1 it n b i 3 1 b<i£, &c. £c£. 


1 84 SYNTAX. 

i^ruber $efe()Ctt, I saw your brother this morning. The im- 
perfect and pluperfect tenses, on the other hand, denote a 
relation of time to another event ; e.g. al$ tt anfam, rcifcte 
id) ab, when he arrived I departed; al$ id) aniam, UMV tX- 
fcfcon aB^Ctetfet, when I arrived he had set out. 

An event which refers to a division of time, and not to an- 
other event, is in English expressed in the imperfect tense ; 
e. g. I "diets at the play last night. In German, on the other 
hand, the perfect is employed in this case ; e. g. id) bin gefimi 

2l6enb int ©cfraufrnele $ ewe fen. When we say, id) wax #e= 

(lent tm ©dbaufpiele, another event, e. g. when you were there, 
or when Hamlet was acted, is understood. The imperfect is 
employed in the historical narrative as in English. 

Forms of expression like / am to speak, he is to come, do 
not exist in German : they are rendered by the first future, 
id) ivevbe fpvedben, er nuvfc> fommen ; and if a necessity rather 
than a relation of time is to be expressed, by the auxiliary 
verb of mood follen (§ 70) ; e. g. what am I to hear ? Wa§ foil 
id) &6roi*. 

The relative tenses expressed by the forms / was about to 
speak, he was to come, are always rendered in German by the 
auxiliary verb of mood, ftelten and fcllen ; the former being 
employed w T hen the action depends on the will of the subject 
of the sentence, and the latter when it depends on the will of 
another subject; e. g. ev tt>0 lite fprecfren, he was about to 
speak; er follte QlfydnQt UKrbCH, he was to be hanged f. 

Observation. — The English auxiliary verb / will sometimes expresses the 
frequency of an action; e. g. "When our visitors would say, 'You have 
fine children,' she would answer, &c." " Sometimes our neighbour would 
pay us a visit." "While one played, the other ivould sing." This meaning 
is either not expressed in German, or it is pointed out only by a relational 
adverb, as gutwiiefl, ml (§ 138, 139); e.g. wenn unfere $reunbe wo I, or 
3 u tret I en fasten, &c. annrortete fie wol, &c 

* 2)iefe 3eit, bie ntleS (>fen [off, i)<\t er fie uafjet ntrfjt frejeicfynet'? Sch. 
f 3d) entffoh i()t ! iue(icid)t uni ^fiotQcn efren biefeS XaqeZ, t>er mid) nuf tw'iQ ifrr 
mettn-n folttc. Sch. 

£>er ©(inner bat freftodscn icerben foffen mit btefem (Ect)tmuf. Sch. 


SYNTAX. 185 

Moods. 

§ 163. 
The indicative mood denotes actual existence asserted or 
denied by the speaker; e. g. ber Stotmt 6luj)et, the tree is in 
blossom; tie Sonne #el;t lim VKX Ul;r attf, the sun rises at 
four o'clock; Q'dfat tft in 2?ntamite»l gewefeil, Caesar has been 
in Britain ; ber 3)?enfdb if? tlicJbt ftQma^ttj, man is not omnipo- 
tent. The indicative also serves to express actual necessity 
and actual possibility asserted or denied by the speaker ; and 
in German it is always employed, even when actual possibility 
is left doubtful ; in which case the conjunctive is frequently 
employed in English ; e. g. if what you tell me be true, it shall 
never make me a rascal, VOixm bas, Wd§ ©ie faqen \X>ai)X if?, 

foil e£ mtdb me £tt einem SBbfenridbte madben ; if he be wise, he 
will follow your advice, n?emi cv Huq ijl, folgt cr 3&rem 3totl;e; 
I shall give him advice though he do not care for it, id) Will 

il;m Ovatl) #e&en, wenn er and) nidbt barauf ad)Ut Doubt of 

real existence is denoted by the conjunctive mood only in ex- 
pressions like 06 cr Font me obcv nidbt font me, iff gletdbflultu}, 
whether he come or not, is indifferent; WtX er and) fei, tcb 
Will ii)\\ rtnreben, whoever he be I shall speak to him; iff 
feme? ba ber ftdb tl;m Uuberfe$e? is there no one to oppose 
him # ? 

§ 164. 
The conjunctive mood is in general used when a predicate is 
quoted, i. e. when actual existence, actual necessity, or actual 
possibility, is asserted or denied either by words or in the 
thought of a subject spoken of; e. g. er er^citylt, ber &?CUttt! 
Blithe, he tells me that the tree is in blossom; er Cjlaitbt, bte 
Sonne #e!)e urn brci Uljr auf, he thinks that the sun rises at 
three o'clock; (Safar Bertdbtet, er Ui in ^ritannten gewefen, 

Caesar relates that he has been in Britain f . 

* sjtt(&ts SBii&reS (Aft fid) won bet Sufunft iwiffcn bit f d> p f e ft bnmten nn bet -S>oife 
5(uffen, bu f d> p f e fl brofeen mi bem Cmclt be$ SidjteS. Sch. 

SKMdjer e6 fei, er r>nt uietn £erj erfreuet. 5Wi. 

©a tft nid)t$, i»oS ben 9Jcenfd)en erfcfyrerf e. £c&. 

f -Wan fa<jt, fie ftafce ben @emnf)f ermorben tnffen. 6'c/j. 

(?r t>eifud)te fid), (fngenb) er tyabe faffd) gejeuget, bie tlngfitcft&rtefe (in 93flfringtim 
fei en ffiifd), er f) n (■> e nnbere 20orte gcfcfyriefren. jSfcA. 


186 SYNTAX. 

There is no difference in this respect, — whether the subject 
spoken of is at the same time spoken to, or himself speaking ,• 
e. g. bit fagft bu fetji #eftmb, you say that you are in good 
health ; id) $tau6te er fet fxatlf, I thought he was ill : for in 
both these cases the person spoken to and the speaker do not 
assert the fact of the illness, but merely quote their own belief 
of it. The conjunctive thus being the mood of a quoted pre- 
dicate, can stand only in a subordinate sentence. The form 
of the conjunctive occurs in principal sentences however, when 
it is employed to supply the third person of the imperative 
mood, as will be explained in § 166. 

The conjunctive is also employed, as in Latin, when an 
action wished for or intended is quoted in an accessory sen- 
tence, connected with the principal sentence by means of the 
conjunctions bag, that (Lat, ut), bamit, auf bag, in order that, 
for the purpose that; e.g. id) wimfdbe, bag er 6alb #enefe, I 
wish that he may soon recover; id) liefyme 5lr^iei, bamit id) 
genefe, I take physic in order that I may recover; et fprtcbt 

laut, bamit tin jeber il;n t>evfk|>e, he speaks loud so that 

everybody may hear him. The conjunctive accordingly may 
stand after verbs implying a hope, wish, advice, request, 
command, permission, fear, preventing, forbidding, &c, though 
they are, as in English, more commonly followed by the supine 
(see §184). 

The assertion quoted in the accessory sentence is, on the 
other hand, commonly expressed by the use of the indicative 
mood, when it is considered as a statement of a real fact by 
the speaker also, and when it is not so much the assertion 
quoted, as rather the act of quoting, which is to be pointed 
out. In this case the principal sentence has the principal 
accent, and the accessory sentence only the subordinate ac- 
cent; e. g. er fet6|t Ijat #efa#t, or ^ejtanben, bag er (}efel;lt &at, 
he himself has said or confessed that he has been in fault ; it 

will e3 nidbt gloit&en, bag fern Sfrttber #ejror6en tjl, he will not 

believe that his brother is dead; er i)at alien Oeitten er^a&lt, 
bag et ^eitatljen Will, he told everybody that he is about to 
be married. According to this principle, the indicative is 
generally employed when the verb in the principal sentence 
implies such certainty as excludes all doubt : this is the case 


SYNTAX. 187 

in JtJifletl, erfciimn, to know; feklt, to see; entbecfeil, to disco- 
ver; e. g. fcu roeigt, or bit ftetjfr bag er Fran? if?, you know, or 
you see that he is ill; er l)at erfamit ba$ er <5Cfet)Xt &at, he has 
acknowledged that he has been in fault ; er |)at #e^et#t or 6e« 
ttuefen, ba$ cr gut $e(tmit if?, he has shown that he is well- 
intentioned. 

The time to which the quoted assertion is referred, is always 
that in which it is asserted by the subject spoken of; and the 
quoted assertion therefore stands in the present, perfect, or 
future tense, according as the fact, event, or activity asserted 
either coincides with, precedes, or follows the assertion of the 
subject spoken of; e. g. er fyat mir vet bret SDitonaten er^ajrtt, 
feut $ruber fet em reidbcr $?arm (present), er f?a6e em 3a£r 
$uvcv em #rof?e3 2?ermogen geerfct (past), unb werbe em @ttt 
f aufen (future), he has told me three months ago, that his 
brother was a rich man, that he had inherited a large fortune 
a twelvemonth before, and that he was to purchase an estate. 
In the conjunctive mood, accordingly, the historical tenses 
(imperfect and pluperfect) are not distinguished, though there 
be a relation to another event (§ 162); e. g. er J>at er^aljlt, 
man fyahc fan .gamlet cjefpielt, atf er tin X&eater #ewefen 
fei; er fet a6er Ijinautf 3 e# a 113 en, iwdbbem er ben er(len 2lft 

#efe|Kn l)abt, he said that Hamlet was acted when he was 
at the play, but that he left the play after having seen the first 
act. The quoted assertion generally stands in the present, 
perfect, or future tenses, though the verb of the principal 
sentence be in the imperfect or pluperfect; e. g. er fft#te, 
er fei fxanf, or er fet franf 3 ewe fen, he told me that he was 

ill, or had been ill *. The German practice, however, is not 
strictly established in this respect ; and the tenses of the con- 
ditional mood also are frequently employed instead of the 
present and perfect of the conjunctive; e. g. er fa#te, er W'&tt 
in $art£ #ett>efen, he said that he had been at Paris f. This is 

* 2>trtuf fd)tie et in bie ©rtffen fyimifc, er fet ber @d)teifcet bet ^fiatia, fei bet SB Life* 
n>id)t, bet fie fa(fd) nugefiagt, et )'ei ctn fntfdjet 3ettge. Sch. 

Gfr trteitue twin miiffe fcei ben Steuben bet ^inbet etnfl fdfyeinen. Gothe. 

©ie 6ef)<iupteten, ofcg(eid) bet Sieutennnt \~el)t Diet getfyan fya&e, fo perotite et borf> 
meift ju affeftitt, brtgegen fptecfye bet junge Qlnfdnget uottteff Ud). Gothe. 

@ie ftagte, d6 et nod} etrcai? ju befef)(en f)Abe. Gothe. 

f 35rt5 rotiren bie ^((ineten, f<igte mit mein Stirrer, fie tegietten bciS @ef(f>tc6. Sch. 


188 SYNTAX. 

done especially when the present and perfect tenses of the 
conjunctive do not differ in their form from the corresponding 
tenses of the indicative; e. g. er fa#te, id} #U1C(e (instead of 
id) Cjfityi) nadb Sranffurt, he said that I went to Frankfort *.+ 

Observation. — It will be seen, that the rules for the use of the conjunc- 
tive mood in German differ from those of the English language, in which 
an assertion quoted is commonly expressed either by the present or perfect 
indicative, when it stands after a verb in the present or perfect ; e. g. he 
tells me, or has told me, that he is ill, or has been ill :— or by the imperfect or 
pluperfect indicative, if it stands after a verb in the imperfect or pluperfect; 
e. g. he told me, or he had told me, that he ivas ill, or had been ill. The 
proper manner for employing the conjunctive, accordingly, requires par- 
ticular attention. 

§165. 

The conditional mood represents an assertion of the speaker 
or of a subject spoken of, as neither actually existing, nor even 
actually possible, but rather as only conceived by the mind as 
possible : thus in the sentence, if he was still alive he might be 
a fortunate man, the "being alive" and "being fortunate" are 
only conceived by the mind as possible, although they be in 
themselves impossible. An assertion which is actually in itself 
impossible, may thus be conceived by the mind, and repre- 
sented as possible by the conditional mood, in the following 
circumstances : — 

a.) If it is made a condition of, or depending upon another 
possibility, which also is not an actual possibility ; e. g. tt?eun 

er nod; le6te, tv'tin cv je$t em reidber Wlaim, if he were still 

alive he would now be a rich man J. Such a condition is 

* ©ie gfrtitfrten, \ie nnitben (instead of tuerben) \i<fy (eid)t ati £elben bnrfteUen. 
Gothe. 

(?r frefjauptete, nut ein feftetieS 53ergniigen tonne fret ben v 3ttetifd)en einen SSertfj 
lj<i6en ; ivinber unb -Uite roup ten (instead of roiffen) nid)t $u fd)anen rons ityneti ®ute$ 
fregegnete. Gothe. 

Gft meintc, mnn muffe bit itinbcr nidn merfen fnffen, roie lte6 twin fie fjrt&e, fte 
grif fen (instead of greifen) itntner ju tueit utn fid). Gothe. 

t ©ramniflttf. .§ 197. 

\ 98 are ft bu roatyr geroefen unb genibe; '2it(e$ ftitnbe gnnj iinbctS, cr fyiitte uid)t 
bas ©d)terflid)e getfjnn, bie ©ttten tyntten ftrnft fret ifjm Oefynlten, nict)t in ber ®<&)U&}-. 
ten 0ntn rocire er gefnUen. SicA. 

2Bdren biefe gor&S, ivie S^r fte fd)ilbert, uerftummen miipte trt), f)pffnung£to$ t>er; 
(oren rorire mcine @<id)e, fptndjen fie mid) fdjutbig. ScA, 

£>iefee efenbe SBcrfjeug fonnte mid) tetten, 6rnd)te mid) fdjnell $u frefreunbeten 
©tcibten nribm ev mtd) rin in ben mtenben itn^n. &;/<. 


SYNTAX. 189 

frequently only understood and not expressed ; e. g. id) fhitte 
fc>ie @acf)C anbet3 getttacjtf, I should have arranged the matter 
differently (if it had been my business # ): — or it is contracted 
with the conditional sentence ; e.g. id) l)dtte an fetnev ©telle 
anberS #ef)anbelt, in his place (if I had been in his place) I 
should have acted otherwise f . 

b.) If it is made a possibility wished for; e. g. Wave er bocb 
nod) am Men ! would that he were still alive ! i)'dtU id) ii)n 
tod) rue ^efe^en ! O that I had never seen him ± ! 

c.) If it is a questionable, possibility; e. g. vo'axt t$ benn 
wa\)t? should it be true? Ijatteft vu wixUid) beinen $mmb 
V ettat^en ? should you really have betrayed your friend § ? 

The use of the conditional mood depends not so much on 
the assertion being actually in itself impossible, as on its being 
conceived in the mind of the speaker and therefore represented 
as impossible. Thus in saying, WetW et l)eate anfdme, if he 
should arrive today, — the arrival is conceived and represented 
as impossible, though in fact it may be possible. 

Though the present conditional (id) fprddjC) is formed from 
the imperfect indicative (id) fpfacb), and the perfect conditional 
(id) jjdtte gefprocfretl) from the pluperfect indicative (id) l)atte #e= 
fprocf)eri), these tenses, with respect to time, agree with the 
present and perfect indicative respectively ; e.g. UJemi id) je$t 
geit f)dtte, Qin$t id) fpa^treu, if I had time now I should take 
a walk; wetw ev t»ov bvet $?onaten in 0?om g ewe fen ware, 
(jatte er feinen ^vttber an v qetvcffen, if he had been at Rome 
three months ago he would have met his brother. In point of 
time these sentences express the same ; e. g. I have time, &c. 
if he has been at Rome, &c. 

The first future conditional (id; Witvbe fpvecfjen) does not, in 
point of time, differ from the present (id) fpvddbe), nor the 

* 25u fiinnteft merfen, bnf; bu tciftig 6ijt. Sch. 
+ £>u roiirbeft wofyi t(;un Hefrn <$iai$ ju (eeten. Sch. 
t 0, ging'S won Diet gerab in'£ Se(b be$ S£obe§, unb nl(e @d)tucrter bur cfy bran gen 
meinen 93ufen ! Sch. 

2)en mod)t id) roiffen, bet bet £reufte mtr oon attfen i|T. Sch. 

5Qer mit Grud), ronnberte, nut Grud) fd)iffte! ^c/k 

§ Scat's m&gfid) SBnter? Sc/j. 

£atteft bu'S mit 5Sor6ebnd)t brtljtn treiben woKen? Sc/«. 

<5o(ft' id>'$ nun tm Cfrnft etfiiUen miiffen? Sch. 

©nft freunbfid) tycitte (Fngfanb fie empfnngen? Sch. 


190 SYNTAX. 

second future (idb Wixxbi gef^tOC&Ctl f>a6ctl) from the perfect (i* 
Jjatte gefptodben). The first and second futures are, however, 
used especially to express conditional possibility, the condition 
being expressed by the present and perfect ; e. g. tt>emi er |)ter 

wave, ttuivbe et bid) Befuc&en, or nntvbe ev bid) Befucfrt {m* 
Ben, if he were here he would pay, or he would have paid you 
a visit # . 

In order to render an expression less positive or more po- 
lite, an actual necessity as well as an actual possibility is, as in 
English, frequently represented as only conditional. For this 
purpose the conditional moods of the auxiliary verbs of mood, 
ttUtffen, fallen, Wollen, and fbnnen, bittfen, ttlbgen (§ 70), are fre- 
quently employed instead of the indicative ; e. g. bit folltejf 
or bit ttUtfjteft i(jn Befttcben, you ought to (instead of must) pay 
him a visit; id) WO lite, ©te Be^leiteten mid), I wished (instead 
of I wish) that you would accompany me ; (gie fount en ttttt 

ba$ n?ol erlauBen, you might allow me that; id) robdbte ^iev 
BleiBen, I should like to stay here f. J 

§ 166. 

The imperative mood is employed in German as in English ; 
e. g. fyxid) ! speak (thou) ! [preset ! speak (you) ! £a§t un£ 
fpvecfeen ! let us speak ! The third person of the imperative, 
however, is generally supplied by that of the conjunctive mood ; 
e. g. e$ fei, be it so ; er #ej)e, let him go ; e£ werbe £idbt, let there 
be light. The conjunctive mood is also employed when, ac- 
cording to the usual German mode of address (§121), the third 
person singular or plural is used instead of the second person : 
in that case, however, the personal pronoun follows the verb, 
as it does in the imperative proper (see § 207) ; e. g. fpvecfce et ! 
fyvec&en ©ie ! 

A peculiar form of imperative expression is made in Ger- 


* Qfuffteljn n> it r b e GrngtotibS gnnje 3ugenb, ftye ber SBritte feme ftonigm. Sch. 

©tiinb' er tfjt; gcgeniifcer, et wtirbe fetn ©efld'.ibnt0 tutebertufen. Sch. 

t @o((te nicfyt em gfucfttdjeS %tatuxeU ntlein <&d)(mfykUx jum giefe fcringen ? 

Smfflng unb (fnbe tnbdjte e$ \wfyi fein unb OfeiOen j aUx in bex Witte 

btitfte bem ftunfttec 9J?nnd)eS fef)(en. G'dthe. 

®tS)wexiid) mbifytt fie btx gotbne ©cfyttiffef fcfyu^en. Sch. 

i ©rnmmntif. § 198. 


SYNTAX. 191 

man from the passive voice of either transitive or intransitive 
verbs, used personally or impersonally (§ 67), by which the 
subject is pointed out only in a general and indefinite way. 
These expressions, however, are always used elliptically, omit- 
ting the auxiliary verb of the passive voice, or even the verb, 
and retaining only an objective factor referred to the verb 
(| 157); e.g. au^tvunfen ! (eg wrbe auggetumfcn) let the 
glass be emptied; aufaeftouben ! (e$ wevbe auf#eftanben) let 
them rise; an bte Slr&ett ! (e$ roerbe an bit $fr6dt ^egawjen) let 
them go to their work *. 

When a positive command is to be expressed, the second 
person indicative is frequently used ; e. g. bu g e I) (i fb#letdb, 
go directly f. When, on the other hand, a request is to be 
expressed in a submissive way, the conjunctive mood of the 
auxiliary verbs mb^en and wollctl is frequently used ; e. g. bit 
WolUft XXXXt t?er^en, please to pardon me; mb^en @te xxkU 
XKV ^cbcnfcn, may you remember me|. 

The imperative mood sometimes stands in the place of a 
conditional expression ; e.g. fet otjm %Xtimb 9 ttnetuel Vtxlktt 
ba$ 13e6cn, be without a friend (if you be without a friend), and 
your life loses much. 


Chapter II. — Syntax of the Attributive Combination, 

§ 167. 
Any predicative combination, as bie ©OttW ewattttt, the sun 
warms ; ^BiltydtU Ctobcvt, William conquers ; ba$ CicJ)t fbtttttlt 
VOW bcm 53?01lbe, the light comes from the moon; may be 
changed into an attributive combination, by turning the pre- 
dicate into an attribute (§ 12) ; e. g. kk VO'axmttlU ©OHW, the 

* $ffiof)(rtuf £<imeraben ! 2fuf'$ ?pferb 1 oiif'S ^pferb! in$ ge(b, in bie3reil)eit gejogen! 

$rtfd) £<imernben ben 9?nppen gejnumt! bie 2$ruft sum ©efectyte geiiiftct! Sch. 

Wit (Ficfyentaub ben £ut befranst! Claudius. 

t £annn bu 6 1 e i 6 ft. £c/*. 

Sfjr fcfyroeigt, bid man eurtj nuftuft. Sch. 

\ SEOnS id) nun fyracfy, moge 9?iem<mb mid) befrtigen. £cA. 


192 SYNTAX. 

warming sun; v 2£i([)e(m bd* @T06ever, William the Conqueror; 
bd$ Bidbt bd 3)?01lbe?, the light of the moon (.§ 12). 

The attribute assumes either the form of an attributive ad- 
jective (rtfdrweilb), or of an attributive substantive in apposition 
(bcv (fvoBevev), or that of an attributive substantive in the geni- 
tive case (bc£ SD?01lbc$), which is sometimes expressed by a 
preposition. 

In each of these different forms the attribute, in as far as 
it is a notion, and not a mere relation, expresses like the pre- 
dicate the notion of an activity referred to the notion of a 
person or thing. On that account also the different forms of 
the attribute are frequently employed one for another in dif- 
ferent languages, and even in the same language ; e. g. the 
royal favour, bk (Bitlljl be£ Rc\\i§Zv; popular language, 
bie ©prac&C be£2?olfe$; a child of three year ?, dtl btzb 
jtiljvt.qey j\Utb; Richard lion- hearted, Oudbavb £oU>en$eVj; 
a very respectable man, and a man of great respectability. 
The attributive combination differs from the predicative com- 
bination in not expressing the act of assertion, but only the 
notion of a person or thing : hence every notion which is 
referred in this way to a notion of a person or thing is con- 
sidered as an attribute, and its expression, whatever be its 
form, as an attributive factor; e.g. in bev 2?etter ail$ £o lib 017, 
the cousin from London; bev ?)?ani! till $?onbe, the man in 
the moon. 

The attributive relation is a relation of concord (§ 11, 12). 
This relation is expressed by the inflection of the substantive 
in apposition, as well as of the attributive adjective. The 
attributive genitive does not exactly express concord ; it only 
denotes that a substantive has become an attributive by as- 
suming in some measure the signification of an adjective ; e. g. 
the king's house, instead of the royal house. 

Observation. — In order to convert a predicative into an attributive com- 
bination, the predicate, if expressed by a simple verb or adjective, is turned 
into an attributive adjective, if the predicate is enlarged into an objective 
combination ; e. g. the light comes from the moon ; the house belongs to the 
king. The principal or objective factor alone is expressed, and assumes the 
form of the genitive case {of the moon, the king's), provided that the verb 
which is omitted (comes, belongs) may be understood by the form of the 
expression. 


SYNTAX. 193 


168. 


It has been remarked '(§ 157) that a predicative combination 
or sentence expresses one thought ; e. g. man is mortal : an 
attributive combination, on the other hand, e. g. mortal man, 
expresses one notion only. The unity of the notion expressed 
by the attributive combination is denoted by the unity of 
accentuation ; for the attribute, being in general the principal 
factor, usually takes the principal accent ; and the substantive 
referred to, being the subordinate factor, has the subordinate 
accent. Only when the attributive is a pronoun or other rela- 
tional word, e. g. my father, v id 2?olf» it is considered as the 
subordinate factor, and therefore takes the subordinate accent. 

The unity of the notion is also frequently expressed by unity 
of the form, the whole attributive combination being expressed 
by one word. This is effected either by contracting the two 
factors into one word, e. g. j£b tti^fot)!), the son of a king 
(Compounds by contraction, § 57); or by omitting, by way of 
ellipsis, the substantive referred to, e. g. eitl $ltttter, a poor 
man; tin ^Bctfer, a wise man (Adjectives used substantively, 
§ 7). Elliptical expressions like / have been at Johnson's 
(house), are less common in German than in English. 

Observation. — The attributive adjective is frequently found to have the 
subordinate accent in German as in English. In general, however, this is 
the case only with adjectives implying qualities which are conceived as 
relations to the speaker, and on that account in some measure analogous 
to relational words. Of this description are adjectives implying the rela- 
tions of space and time; e.g. fang, long; furg, short; $ro§, great; fletn, 
small; alt, old; Jung, young: also those which express colour, taste, and 
other relations to the speaker; e.g. ron), red; roet§, white; fu% sweet; 
QUt, good; fcbledfrt, bad, &c. Adjectives also take the subordinate accent 
when they are employed by way of pleonasm ; e.g. a little cJiild; good God; 

toe bunfle SRac&t. 

§169. 
The attributive adjective agrees with the substantive referred 
to, in gender, number, and case; e. g. tin cdttt WlattXI, an old 
man ; eine atte gvatt, an old woman ; etrt alte$ fiau$, an old 
house ; alte banner, old men ; alter* §rauen, to old women. 
When, however, the attributive adjective is considered as the 


194 SYNTAX. 

predicate of an abridged adjective sentence (§ 152), it is not 
inflected ; e. g. bet 2?ater, magi# au$ ©ercoWeit, ^atte Ntcfrt 
#ern ©affmalev, frugal from habit (i. e. being frugal), my father 
did not like feasts. All attributive adjectives accordingly, 
standing after the substantive referred to, are not inflected ; 
e. g. bit Gutter, Uttt#e6en VOW ifyxm £mbem, the mother sur- 
rounded by her children *. 

§ 170. 

The different views in which the notion of a person or thing 
is conceived, are also pointed out by the two different forms 
of inflecting the attributive adjective, viz. by the ancient and 
the modern form (§,116). In general it may be said, that the 
adjective takes the ancient form of inflection when the sub- 
stantive has a general and indefinite sense, which is not limited 
by any article, pronoun, or numeral; e.g. tt?eij?c£ 23rob, white 
bread ; grof tt 0?U^ttt, great reputation ; nut ttcuer CteBc, with 
faithful love; wit Warmer Wild), with warm milk; fcfebnc 
251umen, beautiful flowers; atte £eute, old people; }M1$e 
£Baimte, young trees : it has the modern form of declension, 
on the other hand, when individuality or species of the sub- 
stantive is distinguished by articles, pronouns, or numerals ; 

e.g. ba§ nxige Q3rob, bev gvoge £Rtu)m, mit btcfet tveuen 
£te6e, meme fcbbnen Stamen, atlev atten £eute, of all old 
people. The following particular rules, however, may be 
given for the use of these two forms of inflection : — 

1.) After the definite article, the demonstrative pronouns 
bkfet, jener, betfet6e, berjeni^e, and the indefinite numerals jeber, 
jc^ticbcv, jebweber, the adjective has the modern form without 
any exception. 

2.) After the numeral and indefinite article zin 9 and after 
the possessive pronouns mem, bein, &c, the adjective has also 
the modern form, except in the nom. masc. and nom. and 
accus. neut. sing., in which these pronouns and numerals have 
no sign of inflection, and the adjective therefore assumes the 
ancient form of inflection; e.g. em Cjutev 20iami, and etne$ 


* 2>ort ein gefittete$ £rttibeteuo(f, fd)roefgenb uon ben Srticfyten fetneS gret#e5, 
n>rtd)f<im nuf Q}e\'etye, bie feme Sffiofyltfydtet ronteti. Sch. 


SYNTAX. 195 

fliiten Wanned; em, mem, or euer alte3 .*5au3, and eme$, 

tttcinc^, or ettre3 alt en .<5aufe& The same rule applies to 

the singular of fern; e.g. fctn fitter 2D?amt, and Mtwi ,quten 
2)?amie3; fern aitU $au$, and feine£ alt en #aufe3. 

3.) After the pronouns JVelcfKV and foldjer, and after the 
indefinite numerals emt#e, etlidbe, feme (in the plural number), 

tnele, wm.qe, mel;rere, alte, mancfce, adjectives are inflected in 
the modern form. In the nom. and ace. plur. however, the 
adjectives standing after them generally have the ancient form 
of inflection ; e. g. einige or tnele #Ute $veuttbe, some or many 

good friends, and emi#er or tneler #uten $remibe; etltcbe, Feme, 
tnele, mel;reve nette ^itdber, and etlicfr e r, Feiner, western wuen 
$itdbev. When in rodefrer, foldber, manner, tnel, nxmcj, meljr, 

ttXHt^er, the sign of inflection is dropped (§127, 130, 136), the 
adjective standing after them commonly assumes the ancient 
form of inflection; e.g. ttxldj) or fold) #V0§er ©Mlf?, of what 
or of such great favour; mancfe fcf)6ne$ 2Mb, many a fine 
picture; tnel, ttXHt.q. or mel)t fitgev Wild), of much, little, or 
more sweet milk. The German practice is, however, not de- 
cidedly fixed with regard to the form of inflection of adjectives 
after the indefinite numerals. 

4.) When the attributive adjective with its substantive stands 
in apposition to one of the personal pronouns tdb, bit, &c. (see 
§ 171), the adjective is inflected in the modern form, except in 
the nom. sing.; e. g. id) atmet SD?atm ! fctt #Ute3 j?mb, and 

ityx arm en £ettte. 

5.) After the cardinal numerals ftVti, bvet, &c. the adjective 
is inflected in the ancient form, unless the numeral be inflected ; 
e. g. tm £attfe ^vet fummertJoUer Xa$e, in the course of two sor- 
rowful days, and tm £aufe gtt)ciet fummewollen Xa$e. When 
an adjective used substantively stands after (Stwa$ and 9?tc(jt$ 
used adjectively (§ 136), it is inflected in the ancient form; 
e.g. etwa3 ©ute$, x\id)t$ 9tfeue$, mtt etroa$ ©utem, mit mcjrtg 
9?euem. 

6.) When two attributive adjectives stand before a substan- 
tive, the first of them being inflected in the ancient form, the 
inflection of the second depends on the manner in which the 
two adjectives are connected with the substantive. They may 
be both co-ordinate and equally attributive to their substan- 

o 2 


196 SYNTAX. 

tive : in this case the second adjective has the same or even a 
stronger accentuation than the first, from which it may also 
be separated by the conjunction tuib without any change in 
the sense, and it takes the ancient form of inflection ; e. g. CJitte 

fvifdbc ©utter, good (and) fresh butter ; mix altem rein c m Wiim, 
with old (and) pure wine; frtfcf)e£ flared Staffer, fresh (and) 
clear water ; $efunbe tiatytfytiftt ©petfen, wholesome (and) nou- 
rishing victuals. But the adjective standing first may also be 
considered as an attributive of the substantive already con- 
nected with the other adjective; in which case it has the prin- 
cipal accent, and may be turned separately into an adjective 
sentence : here the adjective standing last has the ancient form 
in the nom. sing, and plur., but the modern form in all other 
cases; e. g. iteue rotfK ^inte, new red ink (red ink which is 

new), and nut netter rotten IMnte ; woWfetler alter 20ein, cheap 

old wine (old wine which is cheap), and nttt Woljlfeilem alten 
2Beiiie; frifdbe fcfwebtfdbe .joerincje, new Swedish herrings, and 
frtfcber fdwebtfcfren .^erill^e. The practice of the language, 
however, is not quite decidedly established in this last point. 

In the nom. and accus. sing. neut. of the attributive adjec- 
tive, the sign of the ancient form e$ is frequently dropped ; 
e.g. taltWafllv, cold water; alt ©fen, old iron; fcjjon better, 
fine weather; 6aar (Betb, ready money*. This is the case 
especially when the substantive referred to is a name of mate- 
rials or an abstract (§ 6), the adjective having the subordinate 
accent (§ 168. Obs.). When by Diet, me£>r, tt>eilt#, JVentger, a 
quantity is implied, the signs of inflection are dropped in all 
genders and cases (§ 136), unless they stand after the defi- 
nite article or a pronoun ; e. g. ba$ VkU @elb, biefe$ Weiltqe 
©rob. 

These rules, laid down for the use of the different forms of 
inflection in attributive adjectives, apply also to adjective pro- 
nouns and to numerals, as far as they admit of either forms of 
inflection {% 123, 132, 133, 134, 136); e.g. mit fotdbem ^eilie, 
with such wine, and einem foldben 2$eine; ^ttmterX^eif, second 


Qin urnit 5BDrt. Sch. 
Gftn fcf)itu>r SSerfrrrdfyen. Sch. 
Grin gtofj @cnnt()(. Sch. 


SYNTAX. 197 

part, and bev ptiU S&eil; jebem ®ot;tie, to each son, and 
einem jeb en ©o^ne. 

When the same adjective, pronoun, numeral, or article, 
refers to two substantives connected by the copulative con- 
junction Mib, it is, as in English, frequently omitted before 
the substantive standing last ; e. g. bie #roge ©lite Unb ©or<^ 
fait meme3 §t'etUlbe3, the great kindness and attention of my 
friend ; fein %Ui$ tmb gtfer, his activity and zeal ; ein £>idbter 
unb .0elb, a poet and hero. In German, however, this omission 
can be made only when the same adjective, pronoun, or article 
agrees with both the substantives in gender and number. We 

say accordingly, bev #roj?e (fifer unb bit #vof?e ©orgfalt meine6 

§reunbe3, the great zeal and care of my friend; id) l)aht mem en 

2?mber unb meine ©cjwejter #efel;en, I have seen my brother 
and sister; ber Stfetb tmb bit ©ferfltcbt, envy and jealousy. 
When, however, the same form of the adjective, pronoun, or 
article applies to different genders, the omission may also be 
made ; e. g. C&U #unbe unb j?a$en, all dogs and cats. 

When two attributive combinations connected by the con- 
junction tmb, and having the same substantive referred to, are 
contracted (§ 152), the substantive takes the singular, and not, 
as in English, the plural number ; e. g. bie Sctttfdbe tmb (gn$* 
Xifdbe ©pvddK, the German and English languages; bit altt 

unb neue 3 eit > tlie old and new times ; fan w|ren unb le$ten 
Xa#, the first and last days. 

§171. 

The attributive substantive in apposition, like the attributive 
adjective, agrees with the substantive referred to in number 
and case ; and in gender also, if it is one of those names of 
persons which admit of the distinction of gender; e. g. niein 
SBruber, ber .gjcwptmann, my brother the captain ; metnc3 2?l'U= 
farl, be£ .gcmptmanne^, of my brother, &c. ; bte j?na6en, meine 
£ie6linqe, the boys my favourites ; ©opine, meine $Mmbin, So- 
phia my friend; tic ©c&Wetlcr, fchie ^ii&tCttn, the sister his 
guide*. When, however, one of the substantives in appb- 

* 3)eS <jrtftft$en «&<iufe$ ®$weitt Iji'uet bet @it>, bet Grrihnijen fepfjn. Sch. 
9ftirf) fcfytetft bie Crumenibe, bie ?8cfd)i tmetin btefcfi hvtS. Sch. 
£>et fttencjen 2)ian a, bet Steutibin bet Sngben (nffct utiS fotgen. SWi, 


198 SYNTAX. 

sition is a proper name, the case is expressed only in the other 
substantive ; e. g. bte $?ad?t be$ j?aifer£ Raxl, the power of the 
emperor Charles, or 2£iUjelm bc£ (?ro&etev3. 

Substantives in apposition, e. g. in 'my brother the captain^ 
generally stand for an abridged accessory adjective-sentence 
(my brother who is a captain — see § 190). On that account 
they may also follow personal pronouns ; e.g. tcf), btX 3 u n$= 

Un#, faun tN, ben alt en 3)?ann, ntdbt Mefcren, I the youth 

cannot instruct him the old man *. 

The substantive in apposition, being equivalent to an ac- 
cessory sentence, has a greater importance of signification 
than an attributive adjective ; accordingly it always takes the 
principal accent, whilst the attributive adjective frequently has 
only the subordinate accent (§ 168. Obs.). In order to give 
a greater emphasis to an attributive adjective, we frequently 
make it assume the form of a substantive in apposition ; e. g. 
fetn $etnb, ber UnyevfoljnltdK, his enemy the irreconcilable 
one (instead of bcr unt>erf4$tdu&e $-einb); fetn greunb, bet £8e= 

bacfatfante, his friend the cautious one (instead of fetn btbad)U 

famer §reunb) f- 

In German, proper names of countries and places, as well 
as names of months, stand in apposition to their common 
names ; e. g. ba$ Rd\\i$nid) ©panien, the kingdom of Spain ; 
bit ©tct&t Conbon, the city of London ; bte Unit>evfttdt @bttin= 
gen, the university of Gottingen ; bit 3)?0t?at 3)?at, the month 
of May. 

Proper names standing after titles and expressions of rela- 
tionship, e. g. .gerr Salter, Mr. Walter ; gvatt Wi% Mrs. 
Will; ^oftor (Ml, Dr. Gall; ^atev dloai), father Noah; 
JBvitbet 2Btl^elm, brother William ; are not properly substan- 
tives in apposition. Titles and names of relationship in this 
position are rather to be considered in the light of relational 
attributes to the proper names ; they are accordingly without 


* 2f)r fennet t(>ti, ben ©c&Bpfer fityner £eere. Sch, 
3d) bet SBetnunftige grille ju crfT. Sch. 

t 3)a$ SBofe, ba$ bet 5Rnnn, bet ^i'tnbige, bem ^Kanne jufiigt, vetgifrt fid) 
fd)n>et. Sch. 

3?iemnnb, ai£> bu, fofl btefen Rrteg ben Siitd)tetUd)en enben. Sch. 

2)ii rott bte SSBflffenarbeit, tie it n b n n f 6 n t e 5 1 u d) b e t a b e n e getfynn. Se/«. 

trrfpare bir bie D,ua( bet Xtennung, bet 3f otfymeH bigen. Sch. 


SYNTAX. 199 

either article or inflection; e.g. 2>oftor ©all 3 ^orlcfmi^cn, 
Dr. Gall's lectures; j?aifer j?arl3 .geere, the armies of the em- 
peror Charles*. 

§ 172. 
When the attributive relation is expressed by a substantive 
which does not agree with the substantive referred to, in num- 
ber and case, we term it the genitive relation ; because the 
substantive either assumes the genitive case, or a preposition 
which may be considered as taking the place of the genitive 
case. The attributive genitive relation, ber 25rtiber be3 Kbtti$£, 
the king's brother ; be$ 2?ater$ $au$, the father's house ; cttt 
SDfonn von ©tanbe, a man of rank; is, however, to be distin- 
guished from the objective genitive relation ; e. g. id) fcframe 
mid) feilier ©cfellfcfraft, I am ashamed of his company (see 
§ 180). Nor can the attributive genitive relation be expressed 
by the genitive case itself or by a preposition indiscriminately : 
in order to decide which of them is to be employed, we must 
distinguish the different kinds of the genitive relation. These 
are, — 

a) The relation of the active subject to an action or effect ; 
e. g. ber 2auf bcr ©Oime, the course of the sun ; ber 3 U # ti\\t$ 
.jQeeve$, the march of an army ; bte XmtC be$ $tt\mbt$ 9 the 
fidelity of the friend ; bte ©tatf e be$ (£ lepE)miten, the strength 
of the elephant ; ba$ ©eWefce bet ©pimie, the web of the spider; 
ber Xentpel ©alomo'6, the temple of Solomon ; bit (?ter bet 2?0= 
$ el, the eggs of birds. 

b) The relation of a possessor to a thing possessed ; e. g. 

ber ©arten be$ $urf?en, the garden of the prince ; bie Krone be$ 

Kbm$e3, the crown of the king ; ber .gut be$ fttia6en, the hat 
of the boy. 

c) The relation of mutual connection of one person to an- 
other, i. e. of a father to his son, of a brother to his brother or 
sister, of a master to his servant, of one friend or enemy to 
another, and vice versa ; e. g. bet 2?ater be$ Wdbd)ZX\$, the 
father of the girl; ber 2)tener mehie$ 2}rttber$, the servant of 
my brother ; ber JmtVlb be$ .j$aufe$, the friend of the family. 

* J&etjog 2nfrred)tt5 fiirfMcfye ©emnljfiti, ©raf ^>nrtnrf)§ cb(e Xodfjtct ^fitte fo nirf^t 
empf«n<jen rcerben foKen. iSWi. 
<?$ ifl bet Mutige ©cfyntten 51 on to 2)<mife»)'$. Sch. 


200 SYNTAX. 

d) The relation of a whole to its parts ; e. g. bets SMcf) be£ 
.gaufc^j the roof of the house ; bev ©ipfel eine3 $attme£ the top 
of a tree ; bte 9?abev ChlC^ 2£a#ert3, the wheels of a carriage. 
We call this relation also that of the partitive genitive. 

e) The relation of a quality to a person or thing ; e. g. etll 
SDiaitn tmfeve3 @tante», a person of our rank ; em ^fcvb von 
Xm$tt gar&e, a horse of white colour; eitl (Scfcbaft tfOH 28icjj? 
ttqfcit, a business of importance : etn Oung VOH @olb, a ring of 
gold. This relation has already been mentioned as the pre- 
dicative genitive of the predicative combination (§ 158); and 
it retains the same name and character, although employed as 
an attributive factor. 

§ 173. 
The relations of the active suhject, of the possessor, and of 
mutual connection of persons, are generally expressed in Ger- 
man by the genitive case, as may be seen from the examples 
quoted in § 172; and the genitive of the active subject and 
of the possessor can be expressed by the preposition von only 
when the case cannot be pointed out by inflection, either in 
the substantive itself, in an article, or in another attributive, 
as is the case in many proper names of places and countries, 
numerals, names of materials, and in the plural number of 
common names when they have no articles. We say, bte 
©rege VOH ^art^, the extent of Paris; bet 4 JMof? tfOH 
Di b b it 3, the Colossus of Rhodes ; bev .gafcn V Vt J? a b t £, the 
port of Cadiz; ettl 2?atev ttOtt 3 e 1)11 & tub em, a father often 
children; bev (Scfdbtttacf ton Dftilcf), the taste of milk; bic 
9?til;e t>on ©tabtert, the vicinity of cities *. And on the other 
hand, bte ©vbge bev ©tabt ^avi$, or be3 jcgt.gen $ari3; bev 
.gafen be3 wolfreicben Rabiy; bev 2?atev bev triev altejten £in; 
bev; bev (Sefdbmacf bev fatteven $?tldb; bte 9M;e bev ©tabte 

^Vantfutt tmb D3?ahl^. The preposition, however, is also fre- 
quently employed before names of materials, as well as before 
proper names of countries and places, where the case might 
have been pointed out by inflection ; e.g. bev ©efdbtttCtcf t 1 0tt 


* 3?ie tfjeure '5rurf)t oon bretpig ittiegvjrtfjren. Sch. 

gftaii \)<\t tnirf) wt etn @crid)t 0011 ^dnnertt i>orciefobert. iSfcA. 

25tes ©efcftt ert)t uoti SRnftern piegt olfes <uif t»ie ©piipe gfctc^y ju ftcttcn. &;/?. 


SYNTAX. 201 

SBein, the taste of wine; bet JvOni# VOW %tattfuid), the king of 
France; bte ©ttagen tf on 2Bien, the streets of Vienna (instead 
of $Beme$, ^XCmfnid)^ Wm^). On the other hand, the definite 
article is frequently placed before proper names of persons, 
names of materials, and common names, for no other purpose 
but that of pointing out the genitive case by inflection ; e. g. 
bit ©dba$C be$ j?rbfu$, the treasures of Crcesus ; Me ©cfttttete 
bit £uft, the weight of the air; bet (Sefan^ bet 2?i?#el, the 
singing of birds (§ 103). 

In German the mutual connection of persons is never ex- 
pressed by the dative case, as it is in English ; e. g. a friend 
or a relation to this person ; an enemy to the country. 

The partitive genitive may be expressed in German either 
by the case, or by the preposition t>on; e. g. ein X^Cil bet 
©tabt, and etn Xljetl fonber@tabt, a part of the city. The 
use of the preposition is, however, more common than that of 
the case after numerals, definite and indefinite, and after su- 
perlatives; and then the prepositions unlet and au$ are also 
employed; e.g. met 4 or ber triette VOn or unter or au$ fan 
@C&ulfna6en, four or the fourth of the school-boys ; bet tteuejre 
t?on or unlet or ans meinen Steunben, the most faithful of 

my friends. The pronouns berjent#e, Wet, and WelcJKt, are 
never followed by the case ; and the partitive genitive of per- 
sonal and demonstrative pronouns, as well as of indefinite 
numerals, if standing after pronouns, numerals, and superla- 
tives, is generally expressed by a preposition; e. g. betjeni^e 
t>on tmi, wet von un$, izfav t?on biefen, iletnet von 3enen, 
fat 2>ejre V on Allien *". When the date of a month is to be 
expressed, the ordinal numeral is not employed substantively, 
as in English, but adjectively ; e. g. et fam fan %t\)n\in 2lptil 

an, unb teifele ben etfren Wlai ah, he arrived the tenth of 

April, and departed again the first ofMay. 

The predicative genitive is, as in English, almost always 
expressed by the preposition; e.g. em Wlcinn t?on 5lnfe^en, 
a man of consequence ; ein Wlann X>0n #to£et ®dd)vfanu 

fett, a man of much learning; eine ©adbe v on #etin#em 


3rf) roetfj bod), wai nut etn Seber uon Gr ud) qiit. Sell. 

£>en ntbcfyt' id) nufTen, ber mir ber Xretifte mui 2il(cn ifl. Sch. 


202 SYNTAX. 

^Oet't^C, a matter of little value*. We also say, however, 
cine ©acfre gcnn#en 2£ert£>e$, eine $erfon l;o^en @tanbe3, a per- 
son of high rank. 

The names of things measured are not commonly connected 
by the attributive genitive relation with the names of the mea- 
sure, as is generally done in English, e. g. a glass of wine, 
three pound of bread, a couple of apples : but the names of 
the measure are, like numerals, regarded as relational attri- 
butives to the names of the things measured, and not com- 
monly inflected ; e. g. mit bVCt $aat ©djmljett, with three pair 
of shoes; t?0tt ^mei Stt^enb (£tevn, of two dozen of eggs; mit 
^ttfei (£3fabV0!1 8?ettCVtt, with two squadrons of cavalry ; mit 

cm ^aax ^-vetutben, with a few friends; mit enter 3fttitge j?in= 
bent, with a number of children. When expressions of this 
description form the subject of a sentence, the verb commonly 
agrees with the name of the thing measured ; e. g. cin 2Ht$CHb 
•jjafen finb gefcboffen, a dozen hares have been killed ; etlte 
^iCtt^e j?tta6ett finb Beifannmn, a number of boys are as- 
sembled. Even the name of the thing measured, when of the 
description of names of materials (§6), is not commonly in- 
flected; e. g. mit einer %W$)t 2Betn 5 with a bottle of wine; 
von gwet ^ftmb 2>rob, of two pounds of bread; mit brei 
©C&effel j^ortt, with two bushels of corn ; von $mi ?)?ag Del, 
of two quarts of oil. When, however, the name of a thing 
measured has another attribute connected with it, it commonly 
stands in the genitive relation, as in English ; e. g. eine ^Itffdbc 
biefeS Seines, a bottle of this wine; ^mei *Pfimb frifcben 
i8-tobi$j two pounds of new bread; eine Sftemje fx6i)iid)cv 

j?na6en, a number of happy boys. (fin $aav, a few, is fre- 
quently used in the signification of an indefinite numeral, the 
article not being declined; e. g. in etn tycidt Xrt$ett, in a few 
days; mit etn faav Morten, with a few words f. 

Observation. — In English, the genitive of the active subject and of the 
possessor is frequently turned into an adjective; e. g. in agricultural distress, 
popular favour, ministerial influence, commercial interest, colonial produce, 
mental eye; instead of, distress of the agriculturists, &c. This practice is 

* 3l)r f e f 6 ft erfiorm ben ©cfyotten Ruti fiir einen SXJtann upn Nugent) unb ®t; 
rotffen, Sck. 
-j- QJrnmmotif. § 205. 


SYNTAX. 


adopted in some German expressions • e.g. b(X$ t>atetit#e 'Nnfefjen, pa- 
ternal authority ; bx§ fbnifllicfre (&C&lO|j, the royal castle: but it is in 
general not conformable to the German idiom. 


§ 174. 

The different kinds of attributive genitives pointed out in 
§ 172, are the result of a predicative converted into an attri- 
butive relation (§ 167); e. g. the crown of (i. e. which belongs 
to) the king • Solomon's temple (i. e. the temple built by Solo- 
mon). On the other hand, in expressions like the education 
of boys, the king's coronation, the genitive results rather from 
an objective relation (to educate boys, to crown the king), 
which is converted into an attributive relation, in which the 
objective factor (boys, king) has taken the form of an attribu- 
tive genitive only in consequence of the verb having assumed 
the form of a substantive. This genitive, which we term the 
attributive genitive of the object, can accordingly stand only 
with verbal substantives (§ 32). In German, however, an 
attributive relation of this description is in general expressed 
by the genitive case only, when the verbal substantive referred 
to is a secondary derivative of the form uncj or er ? made from 
a transitive verb, and accordingly still expressive of the trans- 
itive relation (§ 38, 43) ; e. g. bie (g^idjUVK} ber Winter, the 
education of children ; bie (£rftn&tm# be£ @cf)iej?pult?er$, the 
invention of gunpowder; tie Unterbrit(fun# be$ 2?olfe3, the 
oppression of the people ; bie 29efcjw$ltt1£ ber airmen, the pro- 
tection of the poor ; bet @cf)bpfer ber $Mt, the creator of the 
world ; ber (ivhciUW bet 4 ©tabt, the founder of the town. A 
few primary substantives (§ 32), formed from transitive verbs, 
also take the genitive case in this way; e. g. ber Rdttf eine£ 
.gattfe^, the purchase of a house ; bte lBal)l tiXKv §mtnbe$, the 
choice of a friend; ber 2?erUtfi be$ 2?ernibc}en3, the loss of for- 
tune ; ber 29e|i$ etneS grojjen 2?ermb#eni, the possession of a 
large fortune ; bet ©ebraitdj) ber 3*ft, tne employment of time. 

When, on the other hand, the verbal substantive referred 
to is derived from an intransitive verb governing a preposition, 
the attributive relation is expressed by the preposition which 
the verb governs; e. g. SUtrfl iiadb 3?iu5m, thirst after fame; 
ber ©ebanfe an (Bctt, the thought of God ; gurcfct vor ©efal;r, 


204 SYNTAX. 

fear of danger; 2?crtvauen attf fcine $}?adjt, confidence in his 
power; bic ©Ot^e fttr bte Thibet, the care of the children; 
©tveBen nadb 2?CV#mi$en, the pursuit of pleasure. 

Verbal substantives frequently require a preposition, even 
though the intransitive verb from which they are derived 
govern the genitive ease; e, g. bie Otetie iiBer euien %Z$\lV 9 re- 
pentance on account of a fault; bet (ffel an etnem ©efcbafte, 

the disgust at an affair ; bl'V $8tbatf an ^leibmi, the necessary 
provision of clothing; bet 4 ©pott uBev fetne ^cmbc 9 his de- 
rision of his enemies # . 


Chapter III. — Syntax of the Objective Combination, 

§ 175. 

The unity of two notions, one modifying the other, which is 
that of an action, is expressed by the objective combination ; 
e. g. writes a letter, shed tears, addicted to pleasure. The two 
factors of the objective combination are, the Predicate, which 
expresses the action (writes, shed, addicted) ; and the Objec- 
tive factor, i. e. the notion which is referred to the action (a 
letter, tears, pleasure). The objective generally is the principal 
factor (§ 14), and takes the principal accent: the predicate, 
on the other hand, which is the principal factor of the predi- 
cative combination (§ 157), is commonly subordinate in the 
objective combination. 

The predicate is always expressed by a notional word, viz. 
a verb or an adjective, whilst the objective factor may be re- 
presented either by a notional or by a relational word (likes 
him, lives here) : in the latter case, however, it is considered 
as the subordinate factor, and has the subordinate accent. 

Not only the predicate of a sentence, i. e. a verb or predi- 
cative, adjective, but also attributive adjectives, and the par- 
ticipial forms (§ 74), viz. infinitives, supines, participles, and 

* ©rommrttif. § 203. 


SYNTAX. 205 

gerunds (§ 75, 76, 77, 140), whatever be their position and 
office in the sentence, may constitute the factor referred to of 
an objective combination ; e.g. etn in fetnem 9lffite fleigt; 
#cv 5)?arm, a man active in his office; Staffer trinfen iff 
.qcflUlb, it is wholesome to drink water; er fottimt Uttl ftifttn 
2) rube? £U felKn, he comes in order to see his brother; 
ii)m bte $anbe britcfenb, najjm ct Sl&fdbieb, shaking his 
hands, he took leave. Even an attributive factor, if referred 
to a verbal substantive, may retain the form of the objective 
factor required by the verb, from which the verbal substantive 
is derived ; e. g. bk glltdbt nacb (£#ppten, the flight into Egypt. 
(See Genitives of the object, § 174?.) 

The unity of a notion, which is expressed by an objective 
combination, is frequently accompanied by a unity of the form, 
effected by contracting the objective combination into one 
word: thus the objective combination ^u ©dbiffe fatymi, to 

sail in a ship ; gifcfre fang en, to catch fish ; @m3 freflen, to 

eat grass ; $tttf et ttXtfen, to cast anchor ; are converted into 
the verbs fcjuffen, ftfc&en, gfttfetfe anfem. Single notions of 
actions are, on the other hand, frequently extended into the 
form of an objective combination : thus the notions, jjelfen, to 

assist; fatten, to care; antefge(jen, to perish; xwberfcen, to 

perish and to destroy; 6itj?en, to atone; acfrten, to attend; 

um6rmgen, to kill ; tro^en, to defy ; Bennvf en, to effect ; mtben, 

to advise; may also be expressed by the objective combina- 
tion, .Qiilfe leijlen, to give help ; @or#e traqen, to take care ; 
^u (Sumbe £el;en, $u ©umbe rtcfrten, to go and to put to ruin ; 

2?it£e tljtm, to do penance ; 9lc()t $e6en, to pay attention ; um3 
£e6en 6rin#en, to deprive of life ; Xro$ fcieten, in3 2$Jtaf fe#en, 
dt&il) ge6en. Compound expressions of this description may 
be considered in the light of compound separable verbs (§ 59), 
and are treated like them in the construction of sentences. 


§176. 

Every notion referred to a verb or adjective, in whatever 
form it be expressed, is to be considered as an objective factor; 
e. g. he will come tomorrow j he stays at home ; he works 
actively s he travels with haste ,• he calls you foolish ; I think 


206 SYNTAX. 

him clever ; he looks pale. We have, however, distinguished 
the objective relation as that of causality (see § 177), that of 
locality (see § 186), that of time (see § 187), and that of man- 
ner (see § 188). The relation of causality is expressed in 
German by cases and prepositions; e. g. et* freuet (icfr fettte$ 
CBlUcf e$, he rejoices at his good luck ; cr fttrcbtet {id) VOX bem 
©emitter, he is afraid of the thunderstorm. The relation of 
locality, of time, and that of manner, is expressed by prepo- 
sitions and adverbs; e.g. ei' WOfyltt attf bem 2?erqe, he lives 
upon the hill; et vetfet ill be? 9?ad[)t, he travels by night; ev 
arbeitet tit it $leig, he works with diligence; er JWttbet ftcb tillf^ 
he turns to the left side; er tWfetfet ntOVgett, he departs to- 
morrow; er avbettet (T eij?t#, he works diligently. Even the 
relations of locality, time, and manner, however, are some- 
times represented also by cases; e. g. 9)?mt fmbet allet Drten 
eljrltc(je £ettte, one meets honest people in all places ; ct at&eitet 
ben gatt^ett Xa$, he works the whole day; er write j? md 
frozen $)?Uttje3, he left us in good spirits. 

Relation of Causality. 

§ 177. 
By the relation of causality we understand not only the re- 
lation of an object which is conceived to be the cause, properly 
so called, of an action, — e. g. he is ashamed of his company, 
he is fatigued by walking, — but also the relation of an object 
which is conceived to suffer an action, or to be the effect or 
the purpose of an action ; e. g. he drinks wine, he makes a fool 
of him, he travelsybr his amusement. Language conceives and 
represents every causation as a motion ; we accordingly distin- 
guish in the relation of causality two directions analogous to 
the directions of local motion (§ 143). The relation of the 
object which is conceived as a cause, properly so called (of his 
company, from walking), corresponds to the direction from 
(whence) ; whereas, on the contrary, the relation of an object 
conceived as siffering the action {wine), or as the effect (a fool), 
or as a purpose (for his amusement), corresponds to the direc- 
tion towards (whither). The direction from the object is ex- 
pressed by the genitive and (in Latin) the ablative cases, and 


SYNTAX. 207 

especially by such prepositions as denote the same direction 
of local motion; e.g. of] from (in French de). The direction 
towards the object, on the other hand, is expressed by the 
accusative case, and by such prepositions as denote the same 
direction of local motion ; e. g. to, into, for (in French a, 
pour). 

The relation of causality, in both directions, is either the 
relation of a person, e. g. he is recommended by a friend, he 
obeys his father ; or the relation of a thing, e. g. he weepsyor 
joy, he eats bread, he wishes for an answer. The distinction 
of persons and things is more accurately attended to and 
pointed out by the form of the objective factor in German 
than in English. 

In the relation of causality, the object is for the most part 
connected with the predicate (verb or adjective) in such a way, 
that the notion of the predicate remains incomplete without 
the notion of an object referred to it. Thus, e. g. in the com- 
binations, he drinks wine, he wants money, he is guilty of a 
murder, he wishes for an answer, the notions drinks, wants, 
guilty, wishes, are incomplete without the supplementary no- 
tions of the object referred to them : the form of the objective 
factor, therefore, depends on the notion of the verb or adjec- 
tive, and we say that a case or a preposition is governed by 
the verb or adjective. In some relations of cause, however, 
e. g. he died from poison, he plays^br money, the object is not 
connected in this way with the verb or adjective. 

The relation of causality is either real, i. e. a relation of a 
real cause or effect, &c. to a real action, e. g. to drink wine, 
to fall ill from the heat, to turn to dust ; or moral, i. e. a rela- 
tion of the object to a will, wish, or design, e. g. to speak from 
vanity, to seek for praise, to beg for money, to strive after fame ; 
or logical, i. e. a relation of the object to an act of thinking, 
knowing, or judging, e. g. to know by experience, to remember 
his friend, to think one a fool, to consider one as a hypocrite. 
The difference of the real, moral, and logical relations also is 
pointed out by different forms of the objective factor # . 


©tAtmnfttif. § 209. 


208 SYNTAX. 

§178. 

According to the distinctions now pointed out (§ 177), all 
varieties of the relation of causality may be summed up in the 
following way. 

All relations of causality are either relations of persons or 
relations of things. To the relation of persons, which is ex- 
pressed in German either by the dative case, e. g. er $ej)0rdf)t 
tem better, he obeys his father, or by the preposition v on, 
e. g. er nurb v o n fetnem Celjrer #elo6t, he is praised by his 
teacher, we give the name of the Dative relation. 

The relation of things is either the relation of an object con- 
ceived as a cause, properly so called, and corresponding to the 
direction from ; or the relation of an object conceived as a 
sitffering object, or as an effect or purpose, and corresponding 
to the direction towards. In the relation corresponding to the 
direction from, the object is either conceived to be the supple- 
mentary notion to the notion of the verb or adjective (§ 177), 
or it is not considered in this light. The relation of the sup- 
plementary object is expressed in German either by the geni- 
tive case, e. g. er fefcamt jldb fe i n e r (3 e fellfdb a ft, he is ashamed 
of his company; or by prepositions, e. g. ffolg ail f feme $?ac(jt, 
proud of his power : — we call this the Genitive relation. The 
relation of an object not conceived to complete the notion of 
the verb or adjective, is expressed in German by prepositions ; 
e.g. VOW .gmn^er jter&en, to die from hunger ; tit it @tft tbbteit, 
to kill by poison : — we call this the Ablative relation. In the 
relation corresponding to the direction towards, the object is 
either conceived as sitffering the action, or as the effect or pur- 
pose of the action. We give the name of the Accusative rela- 
tion to that of the suffering object, which is always expressed 
by the accusative case ; and we term the Factitive relation that 
of an effect or purpose, which is expressed either by the accu- 
sative case, e. g. er nermt #n einen £>ie6, he calls him a 
thief; or by the nominative, e. g. er iturb tin .gettcfjter, he 
becomes a hypocrite ; or by prepositions, e. g. er mac&t tfjll 
$um $eucfcler, he makes him a hypocrite. 

There are, then, five kinds of relation of causality, viz. 
the dative, the genitive, the ablative, the accusative, and the 


SYNTAX. 209 

Factitive relation. In some languages a particular case is 
appropriated to each of these relations. In German there are 
cases only for the dative, genitive, and accusative relation *. 

Observation I. — The German dative, genitive, and accusative cases, cor- 
respond in a great measure to the same cases of the Greek language. The 
Latin ablative case corresponds to the ablative relation, e. g. fame mori ; 
and when it expresses an object completing the notion of the verb or adjec- 
tive, to the genitive relation also, e. g. vesci pane, dignus laude. In the 
Finnish and in some other languages we meet with a factitive case corre- 
sponding to the factitive relation. In other ancient and modern languages 
this relation is expressed by an accusative case, in concord with the accu- 
sative of the suffering object, e. g. eligit Paulum ducem ; or even by a-nomi- 
native of the subject, e.g. Pauhis eligitur dux: in both of these cases, how- 
ever, there is not an attributive relation to a substantive (Paulus), but an 
objective relation of causality, i. e. an effect referred to the verb (eligo) $ 
and they are therefore to be considered as forms of the factitive relation. 

Observation 2. — The use of particular cases and prepositions depends not 
so much on the nature of the relation in itself as on the manner in which 
it is conceived by the mind, or was conceived at that period of the language 
when the form in which it is expressed was first adopted. This accounts 
for the different forms which are frequently employed in different languages, 
and even in one and the same language, in order to express the same kinds 
of relations. Thus the verbs fofgen, to follow ; gehorcfKn, to obey ; bienetl, 
to serve ; fjelfett, to help ; and many others, which are conceived in English 
as transitive verbs, and accordingly govern the accusative case of the suf- 
fering object, are intransitive in German, and govern the dative case of the 
person. There are, in particular, many verbs in English, and in other modern 
languages, which are now conceived as transitive verbs governing the accu- 
sative case of the suffering object, whilst in the older languages they were 
conceived as intransitive verbs, governing the genitive case of an object 
conceived as causing the action. Thus effen, to eat; trtnfcn, to drink; 
f)ijren, to hear ; feftftt, to see ; beviiftven, to touch ; in the ancient German 
language govern the genitive, as the verbs corresponding to them do in 
Greek ; and many verbs still govern the genitive case in German, though 
the verbs corresponding to them in English govern the accusative f . 

a. Dative relation. 

§ 179. 
The relation of causality conceived as a relation of person 
{% 178), is in German commonly expressed by the dative case. 

* ©rnmmatif. § 210. 

f ©nrnimntif. § 210. 2lnmerf. I, 


210 


SYNTAX. 


The use of the dative case, however, does not depend so much 
on the object being the notion of a person, as on the notion of 
the verb or adjective naturally requiring a person for its object. 
Thus the verbs to obey, to serve, to help, to follow, to trust, 
naturally require the notion of a person, and not of a thing, 
obeyed, served, helped, followed, &c. though the object may 
sometimes become a thing ; e. g. to obey necessity. 

The dative case is governed in German by the following 
intransitive verbs : — 


antroorten, to answer. 
6e#e#nen, to meet, 
fce^en, to please, 
fcefommen, to agree with. 
6et?or(?c|)en, to impend, 
banfen, to thank, 
btenen, to serve. 
broken, to threaten. 
einfaUen, to occur. 
fejtfen, to be wanting. 
fTudben, to curse, 
fcl^en, to follow, 
frogmen, to do service. 
#e6iiljmi, to be due. 
jgefallen, to please. 
#e(}bren, to belong, 
^e^crdben, to obey. 
$elm#en, to succeed, 
^enii.qen, to suffice, 
cjemcjjen, to turn out. 

and some others. 


piemen, to be becoming. 
t 9ktdbert, to be like. 
Ijdfen, to help. 
Ijiulbi^en, to do homage. 
man#etn, to be wanting. 
mt$en, to be useful. 
O&tie^en, to apply to, fo be in- 
cumbent, 
fcfmben, to hurt. 
fcfreiuCn, to appear, 
fdbmetc&ein, to flatter. 

ffetteVtt, to restrain. 

tf 0$en, to bid defiance. 

tvauen, to trust. 

mitevlte$en, to be overcome by. 

wibetfprecfjen, to contradict. 

nnberjtefjen, to oppose. 

tt)el)?en, to prevent. 
JKidben, to yield. 

ttullfal;ren, to grant. 


Many transitive verbs, besides governing the accusative of 
the suffering object, have also the dative of the person : such 
are, — 


£efel;len, to order. 
6endbten, to report. 
6qa()len, to pay. 
fcteten, to offer. 


fcot^en, to lend. 
6 tinmen, to bring. 
$e6en, to give. 
$efcieten, to command. 


SYNTAX. 211 

flelofcen, to promise. offen6aren, to reveal. 

^ejlattCH, to permit. opfem, to sacrifice. 

$en>at;ren, to grant. ratten, to advise (one). 

<jlait6en, to believe (one). rftlt&ett, to rob (one). 

#bnnen, to wish. reicljen, to reach. 

UagZM, to complain. fcfrenfen, to present, 

(affcn, to leave. fenben, to send. 

let£>en, to lend. fM)len, to steal (from one), 

leijren, to afford. Wdfjen, to consecrate, 

liefem, to deliver. itnbmen, to dedicate. 

tttelbetTj to announce. fttytlh to show, 
ne^ttten, to take away (from one). 

and some others ; e. g. icf) fcericfctete ifym unfern @ie#, I reported 
our victory to him ; er na^m, raubte, fra j)l mtt uiein (Mb, he 
took, stole my money from me, robbed me of my money. 

A great many transitive and intransitive verbs, compounded 
with the prefixes er, Wr (§61), and ent (§ 62), e. g. erlau&en, 
to permit; etfcfceinen, to appear; emnebern, to reply; etweifen, 
to show ; t?erfcieten, to forbid ; tK^eitjen, to forgive ; t>erfa#en, 
to refuse ; tferfptecften, to promise ; VtxfyttyUtl, to conceal ; enfc 
gtfyw, entflietyetl, to escape; entfytec&en, to correspond; also 
govern the dative case of the person ; e. g. id) erlattftte il)ttl $U 
^e^en, I permitted him to go ; VWpty ttn$ imff e ©C&ulben, for- 
give us our trespasses; et' entfTop tttir, he escaped from me. 
The same applies to many verbs compounded with prepo- 
sitions ; e. g. a&fcjjlacjen, to refuse ; afctreten, to make cession ; 
anffc&en, to become; antraCjen, to offer; auftra#en, to charge; 
fceiftefjen and 6etfprin#en, to assist; Bettreten and fceiffmrnteti, to 

accede; untevttxvfen, to subdue; tmdbjin^CH, to sing in imita- 
tion of; V0rfm#en, to sing before another (§ 59) ; ^ufcbreifcen, 
to ascribe to; ^ufa$en, to suit; jufomwen, to become; and 
others, e. g. t>a$ frefct bit an, or ba$ fommt bit £lt, that becomes 
you ; gafar fmt ben 9?bmern ©allien untetwotfen, Caesar has 
subjected Gaul to the Romans ; er i)at ttn$ 6ei#ejrimmt, he has 
acceded to our opinion. 

The dative case of the person is governed moreover by the 
adjectives, — 

a^nlidb, like. anfrbgt#, offensive, 

anqenefjm, pleasant. 6efannt, known. 

p 2 


212 SYNTAX. 

kqucm, convenient. l&ftifa troublesome. 

fcettUtgt, known. (ie&, dear, 

bienltdb, serviceable. nacbt^ilt^, prejudicial. 

ei#ei?, own. na^e, near. 

frcmb, strange. niigltdbj useful. 

frcunbttdb, kind. fdbabltdb, hurtful. 

$tQir\WdXti$, present. fc(Mtbt#, indebted (to), 

cjemaj?, suited (to). tmt, faithful. 

*™& I inclined (to), Wfof* superior 

QtWCQm J t>erbac|)ti# 5 suspected (by). 

Cjewadbfen, equal (to). Vtxbtrhlid), detrimental. 

Qkid), equal (to). Wljaft, hated (by). 

#ttabt#, gracious. WWanbt, related (to). 

tyetlfam, wholesome (for). tfortljeiUjaft, advantageous. 

£olb, kind. Unbritf, contrary. 

ahi)0lb, unkind. Untlfommen, welcome. 

and by those derived from verbs governing the dative case ; 
e. g. ctnjtatlbifl, becoming ; bienffbar, bound to service; ercjefcen, 
addicted ; #e&orfam, obedient, &c. 

The person to whose satisfaction or advantage, and to whose 
displeasure or disadvantage, an action is referred, is also ex- 
pressed by the dative case, though the notion of the verb is 
not completed by the object; e.g. bet 4 ©cfmetber tttftdbt ttlir 
eimn Dfocf, the tailor makes me a coat ; bir fclttJKn feme 9?ofen, 
no roses are blooming for thee ; er jttl#t bit em £teb, he sings a 
song to you; ber ©c[W& iff ttttr £U en^e, the shoe is too tight 
for me ; ber SSJein iff ttUY <5Ut #emt#, the wine is good enough 
for me *. This relation, however, may also be expressed by 
the preposition fur, as in English ; e. g. bev ®dftitibtf tttadbt 

fiir nttdb (for me) emcn 9?ocf. 

The dative relation comprehends also that relation of the 
active subjects, which completes the notion of a verb in the 
passive voice ; e. g. he is beaten by his brother. In German 
it is always expressed by the preposition VOtt; e. g. er Witb 
von feirtem SBruber ^efdbfogen, er iff von ntemem $ruber #efef)en 
WOrbetl, he has been seen by my brother. The dative case is 
however employed, whenever the active subject is referred to 

* SEBnr id) i f) m, wa$ er m i r. Sch. 
£>f>ne bie ©nnt er&fityt if)m fcie (Frnte. Sch. 


SYNTAX. 213 

verbal adjectives of a passive signification formed by the affix 

bar (§ 51) ; e. g. biefer $rtef ift mix nidbt le£6ar, this letter is to 
me illegible; bie ©adbe ift tttiv tlidbt benfBat, the matter is in- 
conceivable to me; bet ^Otttet tft UK 3 tlidf)t jtdbtfcar, the comet 
is not visible to us. 

Observation 1. — In German, the personal relation completing the notion 
of the verb or adjective is always expressed by the dative case, to which 
the preposition to corresponds in English. A preposition occurs only in 
the expressions, a U f @tnen ^Urnen, a U f (Sinen bcfe fettt, to be angry with 
a person; mit @inem uerbinben, Dercinigen, uerma^ten, rer^eirat^en, to 
unite, to marry one to; mit @:inem Derglet^en, to compare with. 

Observation 2. — In German, the dative of a substantive is frequently em- 
ployed instead of the genitive of the possessor (§ 172), and the dative of the 
substantive personal pronoun instead of the possessive pronoun ; e. g, ©ie 

f?e6en m e i n e m 25 r u b e r, or i fj m tm 2£e$e, you stand in my brother's, or 
in his way; er fie&t bctti 2?ater, or tfcm nacfr ben ^ugeil, he looks at //w 
fathers, or zt his eyes t, er tafTet bem Ratine, or i&m an bie @&re, he 
touches this man's, or his honour ; e£ fcfrneibet mtV in£ $erj, it cuts me 
to the heart; er fillbte ttltV bat £aupt, he anointed my head; ber tfepf 
t&Ut mir tt>e&, w?/ head aches. 

Observation 3. — The dative of the person is also employed in a number 
of impersonal expressions, made by means of adjectives, and peculiar to the 
German language. Thus we say, e$ if? mir anyftlicb, batli), I am afraid, 
alarmed; es iff mir leib, I am sorry; e$ if? mir fait, Warm, I feel cold, 
warm. For the impersonal verb governing the dative case, see § 182. 

Observation 4. — £efjren, to teach, is used with the dative of the person 
and the accusative of the thing; e.g. er le&rt mil' ${rit&mettf, he teaches 
me arithmetic. But when an infinitive stands in the place of the accusative 
of the thing, the person commonly takes the accusative case ; e.g. er le&rt 
mt# fatten, he teaches me dancing. 

Observation 5. — In popular language, the dative case of the personal pro- 
nouns is sometimes employed in a peculiar way, to refer an assertion to the 
speaker or to a person spoken to ; e. g. idb lobe mir ba$ Oanbleben, I (for 
my part) prefer living in the country ; ba* Wat 2) t r (@ U &), 3 N C tl) Ctne 
^yreube ! that was a pleasure indeed ! 


b. Genitive relation* 

§180. 

All relations of an object which is conceived as a thing 
causing an action, and as completing the notion of the action, 
are expressed in German by the genitive case, or by prepo- 


214 SYNTAX. 

sitions standing instead of that case. The genitive relation is, 
for the most part, of the description of a moral or logical rela- 
tion (§ 177), and generally applies to intransitive verbs signi- 
fying a wish, desire, want, aversion, perception, knowledge, 
&c. It differs in this way from the accusative relation, which 
generally is a real relation, and applies only to transitive verbs 
(see §182)*. 

The genitive case is governed by the intransitive verbs, elite 
ratten, to dispense with ; ettttangeln, to be without ; #ebenfen, 
to think of; Ijantn, to wait for ; lacfcen, to laugh at ; fpotten, 
to mock; lefcen (bet .£)0ffmtn$), to live (in the hope); e.g. ix 
etmangelte be£ 9?0tl)WenfcHqften, he is in want of the most neces- 
sary things ; gebenf et limner, think of me. It is also governed 

by,- 

1.) The following reflective verbs : 

fidb anneljttien, to interest oneself for. 

— fcebienen, to make use of. 

— 6ejTeij?en, to apply to something. 

— 6e#e6en, to resign, to give up. 

— &emdc|)ti$en, to take possession of. 

— 6emeij?ew, to take (a place). 

— fcefcfretben, to acquiesce in. 

— fcefninen, to remember. 

— entauf? em, to alienate. 

— entfyftlten, to abstain from. 

— entfc()la^en, to rid oneself of. 

— entjinnen, to remember. 

— erfcatttten, to take pity upon one. 

— etinnetn, to remember. 

— ewe^ten, to defend oneself from. 

— fveiten, to rejoice at f. 

— getrbfien, to trust in. 

— vuljmen, to boast of. 

— fdbamcn, to be ashamed of. 

— untetfan^en, ") 

— imtevttunben, >to dare (a thing). 

— wmeffen, j 


* ©tmmnatif. § 211. 

f SDcinesl'{e&n<&eit@intritts werben fid) freuett Me ^ennten be$ £<utfeS. Sch> 


SYNTAX. 215 

jt# ferfe^Cn, to expect (a thing). 

— ttJC^ren, to defend oneself. 

— tt>et#ew, to refuse. 

e. g. er {>at frdb feiner 9?edbte 6e#e6en, he has given np his rights; 
id) fotinte mid) nicbt be$ %oxxk$ enttjalten, I could not resist 
being angry ; id) frmti mtdb jewr 2?e#e6enljeit nidbt entfi'nnen, I 
cannot remember that event; er mfjtttt (tdb feme? Caffer, he 
boasts of his vices. Of this description are also the impersonal 
expressions, e$ lofjtlt jtcfr bet $?t$C, it is worth the trouble ; e£ 
jammett mid) be$ 2Mfe3, I take pity upon the people. 

2.) The following transitive verbs, governing the accusative 
case of the person : 

anfla#en, to accuse. lo^fprec&en, to acquit. 

Sck^rettj to inform one of. ttiaf)1iett, to remind, 

fceraufcen, to rob. it6evfiil;vcn, to convict. 

&efcfmlbi#en, to accuse. it6er(K&en, to save one, e. g. the 
Ctlt6inbcil, 1 to release one trouble, 

entlaben, J from. ufcer^u^en, to persuade. 

entfkiben, to deprive. verftcfKM, to assure of. 

entlaffen, to dismiss from. twrweifcn be£ £anbe$, to banish 

Ctttlcbt^cn, to dispense. (from the country), 

cntfe^en, to turn out from wurbicjen, to think (one) worthy 

an office. of. 

entwb^nen, to wean. ^iljen, to accuse. 

e. g. ©te ttmvben ityxt§ (£ibe£ ent6tmben, they were released from 
their oath ; er nmrbe feiner &d)'d& fcerauBt, he was robbed of 
his treasures ; feiner ^Bttvbe entfletbet, deprived of his dignity ; 
be£ 2?er6f ecben$ u&erfulnt, convicted of his crime ; tdb nmrbt#te 
ii)n nid)t be3 2ln6ltcf3, I did not deign to look at him. — 2?er= 
fidberit, however, also takes the dative case of the person and 
the accusative of the thing ; e. g. cinem etnen 2?ortfjeil wjtcftern, 
to secure an advantage to one. 

3.) The following adjectives : 

Bebiuftig, in want of. fa|)t#, capable. 

fcCWUJjt, conscious of. frol) *, happy with. 

Ctn^cbcnf, thinking of. QZW'tittiQ, in expectation of. 

* 2)e$ fd) on fie n 2hi6fttf6 nnrb mein 2Jfuge ftp I). Sek. 


216 SYNTAX. 

^ewij?, certain of. ti;Cill;aft, partaking in. 

Betlbtf^t, in need of. wbad[)tt#, suspected of. 

f*tuibi#, acquainted with. t?evlujri$, losing something. 

ttMCbttg, in possession of. ttUtrbi^, worthy, 
fcjmlbig, guilty of. 

e. g. fchiev ©dbttlb 6ettM§t, conscious of his own crime ; er ift 
be3 W$f0 fimbt£, he knows the way; bet (&ptad)Z wM)ti$, 
knowing the language ; er tft bet ^tone V erlttjrii}, he loses his 
crown. 

The verbs, ad)ten, to pay attention ; Bebttifen, to stand in 
need; foqebten, to wish for; fcraitcbert, to want * ; tttv'al)XW, 
to mention; $emegen, to enjoy; pjTe$en, to take care; fcfronen, 

to spare; imfeWen, to miss ; t>ergefTen, to forget; roal;nie&men, 

to perceive; marten, to attend; and the adjectives, §t\vcil)V, 
aware; gewoljllt, accustomed; lo£, rid of; ttttibe fatt and a6er= 
britff t# 5 tired of; tfoll, full ; tt>ertl}, worth ; — are used with the 
accusative as well as with the genitive case. The same applies 
to adjectives implying quantity ; e. g. etlie$ $U$tv and einCU 
%ll§lan^, one foot long; cmc^ 3°W^, or cinen 3&H bitf, one 
inch thick. 

Some of the verbs and adjectives now mentioned take either 
the genitive case, or one of the prepositions standing in place 

of that case ; e. g. ftdb einev @acfre, and ii6er cine Sadbe freuen, 

to rejoice at something. Other verbs and adjectives, on the 
contrary, are used only with a preposition ; and in general it 
may be said, that in the progress of the language the use of 
the prepositions encroaches upon that of the genitive. 

The following prepositions stand in this way in place of the 
genitive case : 

$hl, with the dative case, stands with the verbs fmibew, to 
prevent ; leiben, to be ill of; (IcrSen, to die of; ftdb er$e$en, to de- 
light in ; fid) rdcfKn, to take revenge upon ; ^ttJCtfelll, to doubt f ; 
e3 fel;lt, e$ man^eli, eg*#e&ru1}t, there is want of $ : and with th*: 
adjectives, arm, poor; reid;, rich; leer, void of§; franf, ill of; 


* «Jtirf)t mei)X bet ©cfyroefter trnu^tl, bet Ste&e $8mib ju pfec^tcn. S'cA. 

f 91 n beinet llnfd)u(b fycifr' id) me gejiue if e(t. £c/j. 

t Wd)t nn 9?<Uf) g e f» r t rf) t' 6 bet "Wuttctaefce. St/?. 

§ £<i* JTeti tvflr nn 50 tin I'd) en (eer, borf) nicfyt n n Steuben nitn. Sch. 


SYNTAX. 217 

aEjnlicb, like in some quality ; ftkid), equal in ; #voj?, great in ; 
fletn, little in : and in the expressions, an ti\KX ©Cicfre $m\bt, 
©Cfallen, Cuji &a6en, to be pleased with something; an (?inem 
Xrojt, @cbtt$ Ijaben, to find comfort, protection in a person. 
The same preposition, with the accusative case, stands with 
the verbs mabneu, eminent, to remind of; gCJVO&wn, to accus- 
tom to; ^lauBen, to believe in; benfen, to think of*. 

2?011 stands with the verbs ent6lb§en, to deprive of; entfer* 
nen, to remove from ; fcefveien, to deliver from ; lo$fa#en, lo& 

fpredben, to acquit from ; entfe^en, to remove from ; entrobtynen, 

to wean of: and with the adjective fvei, free of, exempt from. 
The same preposition denotes the logical relation of an object 
to an act of thinking or speaking, and stands in this way like 
de in Latin, and of in English, with the verbs benfen, to think ; 
ttaumen, to dream; #lau6en, to believe; urtjjeilen, to judge; 
ttnjjen, to know ; fa^en, to tell ; fpvedjen, to speak ; jjbren, to 
hear, &c. If, however, we wish to express in these verbs a 
dwelling upon the subject, iibcx with the accusative case is em- 
ployed. Thus we say, von einer (&ad)t fyrecfren, uvtbeilen, to 
speak, to judge of a matter; and U6cr cine @ac|)e fpredfKUj to 
speak about a matter ; iibtX etttm$ nacfrbeitfen, to meditate upon 
something. 

s D?tt stands with anfancien, to begin with ; enbt#en, to finish 
with ; X>erfor#en, tKVfetjen, to furnish with ; fid) 6efa|7en, to en- 
gage in; fid) fcetjelfen, to make shift with ; ftct> fce^nii^en, voxlkb 
nel;men, to content oneself with; ^ufriebenf, content; and 
with most of the derivative verbs formed from substantives 
and adjectives by means of the prefix 6e (§ 60) ; e. g. 6e#a6en, 

beloljnen, fcefvan^en, 6eniiti;en, belaften, Befegen, Bepflan^n, to 

gift, to reward, to crown, to trouble, to load, to occupy, to 
plant with. 

Uefcev, with the accusative case, stands with l;evtfc|)eu, fcjjak 
ten? ftmlteu, to rule over, and with many verbs implying affec- 
tions of the mind ; e. g. fpotten, to mock ; pitmen, to be angry 
at ; lacften, to laugh at ; tmuevn, to mourn over ; fid) fveuen, 
to rejoice at ; evfraunen, \ld) umnbew, to wonder at ; fid) CXhaX- 


* 9fn bte SUngfl bet ^xiuefrnu benfft bu nicfyt. Sett. 
t 3f)t fofft mi t mit J u f t i e b c n fein. Sch, 


218 SYNTAX. 

wen, to take pity upon; fla#en, to complain of; froljlotfen, to 
rejoice at ; HXUien, to weep over ; and others of the same de- 
scription. Instead of iifcer, the obsolete 06, with the dative or 
genitive case, occurs sometimes, particularly in poetry # . 

5(uf, with the accusative case, stands with the verbs n?arten, 
to wait for ; V evtmuen, to confide in ; Wtrbfl en, to give one 
fair hopes of; Writer!, to renounce ; tro$en, to bid defiance 
to ; jlcb t>etla(Ten, to rely upon ; and with the adjectives jrol^, 
proud of; eifftflidbtig, jealous of. The same preposition, with 
the dative, stands with 6efre£>en, to insist upon; 6en$en, to 
depend upon. 

2?or, with the dative case, stands with fc|ni$en, to defend 
against; Ijttten, to beware of; etfcfjrecfen, to be frightened at 
the sight of; fTie^en, to take flight before ; 6et#en, to conceal 
from; e$ efelt mix, I have a surfeit of. 

5(u£ stands with 6ef?etyen, to consist of; and in or 6ei with 
6ef)atren, to persevere in. 

c. Ablative relation. 

§181. 

All relations of an object conceived as a thing causing an 
action, but not completing the notion of the action, are compre- 
hended in the ablative relation, which in German, as in other 
modern languages, is expressed only by prepositions. The 
ablative relation is either real, e. g. he suffers from cold ; or 
moral, e. g. he gives alms from vanity ; or logical, e. g. he 
judges by experience (§ 177). This distinction also is pointed 
out in German by different prepositions. 

A real cause, if conceived as external, is commonly expressed 
by t>on ; e. g. von bev .gi$e, or von einer ©petfe frattf tvevben, 

to fall ill by the heat, or from a dish ; V Ottt 2Deine BetUtnfen 
fein, to be intoxicated by wine ; t>0W 9?e#en naj? Werben, to be 
wet by the rain ; fcvaun t>on t>CV (Bonne, brown by the sun ; 
tfon ber ©onnentn^e fcinnel^en, to melt by the heat of the sunf. 


* Sftfe 9?eMid)en betiaqen fid) ob btefeS SnnboogtS ©etje- Sch. 

3f)c feib uerrounbert d6 be$ feftfnmen ©etntljeS. Sch. 
+ ©terfceti tmifj ddh unfret £nnb jebe fefrenbe @ee(e. Sch. 


SYNTAX. 219 

A real cause, if conceived as internal, is expressed by t?or; 
e.g. VOX Sttrft verfcfmiadbten, to languish with thirst; vox 
$i$e fcfmtel^tt, to melt with (internal) heat; VOX £cm#eweu'e 
einfdblafen, to fall asleep with ennui; vox Rummer t?et#efjen, 
to perish with grief; VOX $reube nxtmn, to weep for joy*. 
2?0f 5 however, is employed also to express an external cause 
preventing an action ; e. g. man fann VOX bcm 9?c6el nidbt£ 
feljcn, one sees nothing for the fog ; mem farm t?or bem £arm 
nid)t$ {)bven, one hears nothing for the noise f. 

The preposition buxd) denotes the means by which some- 
thing is effected, and au§ the materials from which something 
is made ; e. g. batdb X^rcmcn vufjrcn, to touch by tears ; bltrcfj 
©dbmetdbelei lotfcn, to entice by flattery ; buxd) ben fianbd jtc£ 
etn Wixmdgtn envevfcett, to make a fortune by trade J ; and aii$ 
Wlaxmot Cin 33itb mad&en, to make a marble statue ; au§ Rx'diU 
tent Cilien Xxauf fcereiten, to prepare a potion from herbs ; au$ 
£ax\f Cin ©Cil madben, to make a rope from hemp. 

A moral cause or motive, if conceived as internal, is denoted 
by au$ ; e.g. CV jtngt OU$ (gitelfeit, he sings from vanity; (£t\va§ 
ail$ ©Cty au$ giferfudbt tjnm, to do something from avarice, 
from jealousy §. An external motive is expressed by wegen 
and f)al6en (% 151); e. g. er gefjt bc£ ^rojeffeS wecjen %um (Ki& 

tcr, he goes to the judge on account of the lawsuit; et if? 
©dbltlben t;at6ev wfla^t WOtben, he has been called into court 
for debts, ^CCjeil, however, denotes also a real cause prevent- 
ing an action; e. g. er fann tt?e#en be3 lawmen f8sim4 nicjrt 
$el;en, on account of his lame leg he cannot walk ; er fotlllte 
ityn n?e#en ber trielen gremben ntcbt 6e(jer6ei#en, on account of 
the number of strangers he was not able to lodge him ||. 

A logical cause, if referred to the internal act of conception 
and judgement, is denoted by au$ : if, on the other hand, it is 
referred to perception merely, it is expressed by an ; e. g. 


* 3d) fd)tv>eige uot (Srfhmnen. Sch. 

t (?c ftef>t ben SGatb Dot SBdumen nid)t. Wieland. 

\ Denft 3fjt, bn£ fie fid) butd) eineti Crib gefcunben g(<ui6en roetben, ben wit ifjnen 
butd) ©nufetfunft a6getiftet? Sch. 

§ 2)te£ontgin fdutnt nod) nu£ fltget Sift, nidjt nu$ @efti[)t bet ^enfcfylidjfeit. Sch. 
2iu^ sftotfjroefjt tfju' id) ben fatten ©d)tttt. tfeft. 

II (?ine jebe 9flalj(jett roat ein 3reft, ba$ fon>of)f tvegen bet Soften n($ meg en bet 
Unfrequcmttdjfeit nid)t oft rciebetfyolt roecben fonnte. Gdthe. 


220 SYNTAX. 

<?tnm3 an? grfaj>rmi#, or au3 ben 3citunaw wiffen, to know 

something by experience, by the newspapers ; er tirtljeilet fo 
CIU§ #Uten ©Vttnben, he judges so for good reasons; and man 
f Clint ben Q?oad an ben J-ebern, one knows the bird by his 

feathers; man ft'efrt an fernen 9Ut#en, nue er e£ metnt, one sees 
by his eyes what he means ; man l)6vt a n feinem 5ltljmen, bag 

CV fcrjlaft, one hears by his breathing that he is asleep % 

There are some particular relations of real, moral, and lo- 
gical cause, expressed by the prepositions t>ermoa,e, fraft, latit, 
and ^Itfolge (§151). Conformity to a real, moral, and logical 
cause, is expressed by nad) ; e. g. e3 Vtedbt nad) ©ifattt, it smells 
of musk; ba$ Staffer fcfrttKift nad) ©alg, the water tastes of 

salt; id} ^a6e alleS nad; 3^'en 20mtfc6en cjettjan, I have done 

everything according to your wishes ; er trinft nad) bev 2?0r- 
fdbrift be3 $lr£te$ $0afTer, he drinks water by the direction of 
the physician ; ev ifr nad) feutcr ©prac&e etn ^ran^ofe, he is a 
Frenchman to judge by his language; er tfr nad) ber ^Ul^faCJC 
ber 3 eu .9 en fcfntlbtg, according to the evidence of the witnesses 
he is guilty. 9?acr), when it implies this logical relation, is 
frequently placed after the case which it governs ; e. g. fciticr 
©pmdbe nad), il)m ^lusfa^e nad). A conditional cause is ex- 
pressed by unter ; e. g. unter ber SBe&in^UW}, with the condi- 
tion; u nter ber 2?orau^fe$un^, in the supposition; unter fo(= 
cfeen Umjranben, in these circumstances. 5(uf and u6er denote 
a cause in expressions like er fret attf bm crjten &d)lag, he fell 
by the first blow ; \d) [)aU e$ attf feinen 3?atl> # et&an, I have 
done it by his advice; and er fcfrlief ufcer bim £efen ein, he fell 

asleep over his book ; er uerajgt ba$ (ffien u6er bem ©pielen, 
the play makes him forget his dinner f. 

d. Accusative relation. 

§ 182. 
The accusative relation is that of an object conceived as 
suffering an action, and completing the notion of a transitive 
verb. This relation is always expressed by the accusative 

* 2Im rettien ©Inn* miii id) bie <Perte fetinen. Sch. 
t Uebet 'm £crrfrf)ft uergigt er ben £>iener. Sch. 


SYNTAX. 221 

case ; and verbs are known to be transitive from their govern- 
ing the accusative case. The most part of derivative verbs in 
general, and in particular all factitive verbs without exception 
(§ 5, 37), are transitive, and accordingly govern the accusative 
case ; e. g. einen %$aum fallen, to fell a tree ; ba$ $ferb tranfen, 

to give the horse drink ; t>a$ SSJafler Warmen, to warm the water. 
The accusative case is governed also by all verbs com- 
pounded with the prefix hi {§ 60), except fcfyftgCift to please ; 
Bennett, to meet (§ 179); 6efiel)en, to insist upon, and to 
consist of; and btfy&XtZXl 9 to persevere in (§ 180); e.g. bett 

©efan#enen 6ett>acrjen, to watch the prisoner ; etnen 2?erlujt 6e= 

ttXinen, to bewail a loss. 

The relation of measure also is expressed by the accusative 
case ; e. g. er fdbldft ben flatten Xa#, he sleeps the whole day ; 

er ge&t $vzi 3)?etlen, he walks two miles ; er nnegt etnen gentmf, 
or er ift etnen 3^tner fcfewer, he weighs one hundred weight ; 
fcrei 3'a^te alt, three years old (§ 180). 

The reflective pronoun, connected with the reflective verb 
(§ 65), stands always in the accusative case ; e. g. id) erhwere 
mid), bu fdbamefi bid). The verbs, \\d) etn6ilben, to imagine ; jidb 
anmagen, to usurp; ftdb getrauen, to dare; (tdb fornel;men, to 
propose ; {id) tf orjMlen, to conceive ; are not properly speaking 
reflective verbs (§ 65); they have the pronoun in the dative case. 

Those impersonal verbs in which a personal subject is re- 
presented as the object, commonly have that object in the 
accusative; e.g. e£ frtert mid), I am chilled; e£ fcfeaubctt nitcf;, 
I shudder; e3 tMttCjert mid), e£ bttrfrct mid), I am hungry, 
thirsty; e$ mtet mid), I repent, &c. (§ 67.) But in the fol- 
lowing the dative is employed; e. g. e3 aljnet ttttr, my mind 
forebodes ; e$ fceltefct ttttr, lam pleased; e£ eMt ttttr, I loathe; 

e3 #rauet mtr, I feel a horror; e£ manqelt, and e£ .qefcridbt mir, 

I am in want; el fcfrttHttbdt ttttr, I feel giddy ; e$ traumt tttir, 
I dream. ($$ biittfet is used with the dative as well as with 
the accusative case. 

e. Factitive relation, 

§183. 

By the factitive relation we understand the relation of every 
object conceived as the effect or purpose of an action, and which 


222 SYNTAX. 

differs from the accusative relation as that of the suffering ob- 
ject. The factitive relation is either real, if the object is con- 
ceived as a real effect of a real action, e. g. envy makes them 
our enemies, to turn into stone ; — or moral, if the object is con- 
ceived as an object of wish or desire, e. g. to begjfor bread, to 
strive after fame ; — or logical, if the object is conceived as an 
effect of the faculties of perception or judgement, i. e. that 
which a person or thing is taken for, thought, or judged to be, 
e. g. I found him (to be) a rascal, I think him a fool. The 
factitive relation, in the same way as the genitive and accusa- 
tive relations, for the most part serves to complete the notion 
of the verb (§ 177), as in the expressions now quoted. The 
relations of design and of purpose, on the other hand, which we 
also comprehend under the factitive relation, — e. g. he plays 
for his amusement, he fights for his country \ — does not necessa- 
rily complete the notion of the verb : being always referred to 
an act of volition (wish, desire), it is to be considered as a 
moral relation, though the verb referred to may express a 
real action. 

In German the factitive relation is expressed only in a few 
instances by the accusative and nominative cases : in all others 
it is expressed by prepositions. 

The real factitive relation is commonly expressed by the 
preposition 3a; e. g. bet 4 3)?enfcf) tturb ^U ©taa6, man turns to 
dust; .gol^ t(t £tt Stem #eW0Vben, wood has been turned into 
stone; %tyt ttiadKt mid) 3 It (£ltvem (EtfktfCn, you make me your 
slave; jit emem Stoame nwdbfen, to grow into a tree; ©men 
$um 2h^te fcilben, to educate one for the medical profession ; 
Sincn 3a fetnem (£r6en emfe$en, to appoint one ones heir; 
dinm 3am ^Cttr ertjeBen, to raise one to the peerage ; reif ^ar 
(State, ripe for the harvest *. The same preposition, standing 
after the adverb of intensity ^a, too {iiimis § 138), denotes the 
same relation ; e.g. er ijr 3 a fcfmmdb guv 2?ert&eibiflim<j, too 

* 2)et 3«>nng bet Seiten mnd)t mid) 5 u eutem ©ecjner. Sch. 

2)ein .SBntet tft.jum ©cfyeim an rait geroorben. Sch. 

gum 53errotl)er roerbe nid)t. Sch. 

5f>n f)nt bie itunft jum fjeitent £empd auSgcfcfymtitft, wo fe(6ft bic 2Qitf(id)feit 
3 lit 2)id)tung roitb. Sch, 

2>enft 3f)t, t><i$ bet foniglidje 9?nme jum Steifcrief bienen fonne? Sch. 

3u eutet 2Giitnung follte fie geteidjen. Sch. 

SBni man fd>etnt, fjnt 3ebetmnnn jum 9?id)tet. Sch. 


SYNTAX. 223 

weak for his defence; er ijl ^tt {pat jum Sfaifett, it is too late 
for travelling *. 

The verbs MXWmbdtt, to change, to turn into ; t^etlcn, to 
divide into ; £erle#en, to dissect, to take to pieces ; and others 
of a similar signification, govern the preposition in with the 
accusative case; e.g. SHtoffc? in 2$ein t?evtt>anbeln, to convert 
water into wine; (gtWb$ in bret Xfjeife Xl)t\kn, to divide some- 
thing into three parts. 

Only the verb werbett, to become, to grow, and Sleifcen, to 
remain, are used with the nominative case ; e. g. er Wixb etn 
2ix$\Kt (and ^ttm £ii,gner), he becomes a liar ; cr 6lei6t em jftnb, 
he remains a child f . 

The moral factitive relation also is commonly expressed by 
]U, when the object wished for is something to be done ,• e. g. 
$um §rieben ratfjen, or ermal;ren 9 to advise, to exhort to make 
peace; jemcmben ^u etner jfait&utig nbtl^en, $ivin$in, to en- 
gage, to force one to an action ; ^eneigt, ftmit $M 2?erfbtjnUng, 
disposed to, ready for reconciliation. The verbs $e6kten, hi- 
fc^len, to command; t»ev6icten, to forbid; erlctilben, to permit; 
Wlfpredben, #elo6en, to promise ; ttmnfcfjen, to wish ; and others 
of a similar signification, govern the accusative case ; e. g. er 

#e6ietet ©ttllfdfweigen, he commands silence; er erlaufct ben 
(Sintritt, he permits the entrance ; er ttmnfcf)t ben grieben, he 
wishes for peace. When, however, the object is expressed by 
the supine (see § 184), or by an accessory sentence (see § 193), 
it assumes the form appropriate to the factitive relation ; e. g. 
er #efcietet ^u fcfrnm^en, or ba$ man fcfrnm^e. The same 
relation is denoted by auf in expressions like auf etwa$ 2}bfe$ 
benfen or fhmen, to meditate some ill design ; auf Or tn?a£ recfc 
nen, to rely upon something (to come) ; auf (Sttt>a3 #efa|jt fein, 
to be prepared for something; auf (£ttt?a$ tfor&eretten, to 
prepare one for something ; ^ett auf eine 2lr6eit Vtxmnbtn, to 
spend time in a business; tk 5fa&ja6en auf eine Befrirmtlte 
©Uttime 6efd;tanfen, to limit the expenses to a certain sum J. 


* 2)u bift ju ftofj jut 2)emut(), id) jur|2iige. Sch. 
t SlffeS roirb ©eroe^r in tfjret £anb. £c/t. 
f Set £etjog finnt a u f fBerrntf). ,SWi. 

3d) tedjnete nuf einen rceifen (gofjn. SWi. 

31 uf fo(d)e 23otfd)nft rorn: id) md)t gefn#t. -StA. 


22t SYNTAX. 

When, on the other hand, in the moral relation a possession 
wished for is expressed, the prepositions am and wad) are used. 
Um is taken by the verbs Bitten and eifadjen, to request ; 6ct= 

tela, to beg ; 6at;len, tverfcen, to court, to sue ; fpielen, to play 

for ; fid) fcemiifyen, to endeavour ; and others, which imply re- 
quest or endeavour ; e. g. a m &Yob 6ttten or Betteln, to ask for 
bread; am Me ©unft 6tt^lcn or WerBen, to court for a favour; 

am ©elb fpielen, to play for money *. 

Slad) is employed with the verbs verlan^en, fid) fefwen, to 
long for; frreben, rin#en, to strive after; forfdben, fra ( gen, to 
ask, to inquire; and others implying desire; e.g. wad) etnem 

greanbe verlan^en, or jtcb fetynen, to long for a friend ; wad) 
ernem 2lmte ffreBevt, to stand for a place or office; wad) km 
(Srimbe fm^en or forfdben, to ask for or to inquire into the 
reason. A design or purpose, the notion of which does not 
complete the notion of the verb, if it is conceived merely as a 

thing, is also denoted by 311 ; e. g. er tmgt ben ®e#en ^u feiwr 

(^idbet^eit, he wears the sword for his security; er Vetfet 3 am 

2?er>}na$en, he travels for pleasure; er liefet $u (etrier 2Mel> 

XUWC], he reads for his instruction. When, on the other hand, 
the relation is to the satisfaction or advantage of persons, or of 
such things as are conceived as persons, it is expressed by far 

(§ 147), or by am— Mien (% 151); e.g. er 6aat .gciafer far 
feme ^inber, he builds houses for his children; cr fid)X far ba$ 
2?atevtanb, he fights for his country; er I) at v tel fiir an$ fletfjan, 

he has done much for us ; and er ent^t fid) ^erfllliujen U nt 
fetne^ 23raber^ Widen, he refuses himself amusements for the 
sake of his brother. 

The logical factitive relation is expressed by the preposition 
fttr, after the verbs Ijalten, to take for; aufyibiXl, to g ive ^ or > 
erfldren, to declare as ; $elten, to be taken for ; erfcmiClt, -to 
acknowledge ; and some others of a similar signification ; e. g. 

etnen fiir etnen ^Betvager fatten, erflaren, to take or to declare 
one to be an impostor; fiir eitten J?imjHer #elten, to be con- 
sidered as an artist; fid) fiir etnen 51^1 ail^chcw, to profess 


* 3d) mug u m brtS 2o& bet tylenqc bu()(en. Sch. 
Saffen mt bet dxbe ftiixften um Die Cfrbe (ofen. Sch. 
&x tft mein "JOiberpnrt, ber inn tin nltcS C?f6ffcucf mit miv vecfytet. Sch. 


SYNTAX* 225 

to be a physician # . The same relation is expressed by the 
accusative case after the verbs f)eif?en, tiemien, and fcfrdten, to 
call, and by the nominative after the same verbs in the passive 
voice, and after f)eif? en in the intransitive signification ; e. g. 

©nen einen XI) or en beijjen, nennen, fdbelten, to call one a 
fool; 3el;ami with ber Xaufer genamit, John is called the 

Baptist; ffiaxk i)ii§t bit 2?llttt#e, Mary is called Bloody. 
After the verbs anfeljen, to regard; OetracfjtCH, to consider; 

erfennen, to acknowledge ; erfdbetnen, to appear ; barjtellen, to 

represent; and some others of a similar signification, the 
logical relation is expressed by the adverb aU (Lat. tamquam, 
French comme), which has the signification of a relative adverb 
(§ 131), and is followed by the accusative case, except after 
$elten, and after the other verbs in the passive voice, when it 
takes the nominative; e. g. ©mil al$ eilien $reunb aufc()Cll, 
erfeillieil, to regard, or to acknowledge one as a friend ; (srinen 
Ctl$ emeu 23etritCjer barjtellen, to represent one as an impostor f. 
The place of the objective factor in the factitive relation is 
frequently taken by an adjective which is not inflected. Thus 
we say, (£men Veidb or arm macfKn, to make one rich or 

poor ; as we say, (?inen ^u cincm &>bfu3 or pun Settler nta> 

cbeilj to make one a Croesus or a beggar. The logical relation 
in particular is frequently expressed in this w r ay by the adjec- 
tive alone, or by the adjective connected with fur or al?; e. g. 
(ginen ^Uicflid; preifen, to esteem one happy ; (ginm wetfe nen= 

Jten, to call one wise ; er fuljlt {id) tjerjitttgt, he feels himself 
young again ; id) i)ahi tt)n berattfcfrt ^efeljen, I have seen him 

intoxicated; (ginen fitr ttycxid)t (ftir einen Xtyoren) tyalttu, to 
take one to be a fool ; id) fe£>e ii)n aU \Vdl)n \i\mi$ CM, I con- 
sider him as mad %. The present participle, standing after 


* SKttr fyaittrfi 6(o0 fur Stig unb £ntg. Sch. 

(Juer ©nnben ftnb betannt fur einen fyoijen ^riegegfyrften. Sch. 

?EBir fonntcn gelten fitr ein gnnjeS 93uff. Sch. 
f 3d) i)(if> Gfud) frets rtU asiebemninn erfunben. Sch. 

2)e$ gptosefTee fefttid)e$ ©epninge limb dU ein fiifoner 5reue( mtr erfdjeitten. Sch. 

2)nf3 bid) bie ©utfen nid)t 11B £ontgin erfennen. Sch. 
J ©feid) fyeigt 3r)r atteS fd)dnb(id) ober tviirbtg, 6oS ober gut. Sch. 

3d) ivdfynte mid) uerlnffen uon aiia $Ge(t. Sch. 

3d) voiii mid) frei unb gtiirflid) trnumcn. Sch. 

9?id)t fur oerforen nd)t' id)'$. Sch. 

23efennt 3fyr enblicr) Grud) ftir u&ernutnben. Sch. 

Q 


226 SYNTAX. 

the verbs l;bm?, to hear ; fet;en, to see ; fmbeil, to meet ; tttte 
cfren, to make ; which in German assume the form of the infi- 
nitive, e.g. id) l)0K ilin fpredben, I hear him speaking (§ 75), 
is also to be considered as an objective factor in the factitive 
relation. 

Observation 1.— The factitive relation, being the relation of an object 
caused by an action (in the direction towards, § 177), differs from the geni- 
tive relation, which is the relation of an object causing an action (in the 
direction from). But as the moral relation of an object wished for may 
be conceived also as a motive causing an action, the forms of the moral 
factitive relation, and of the genitive relation, frequently stand one for an- 
other. Thus we say, einer &a&e barren, pertr'o'ften, ft'cij uerlafTen, and auf 
etne e!afi)e fcavren, uemb'flen, fidb r-erlafTen, to wait for something, to put 

trust in something, to depend on something. 

The factitive relation differs also from the accusative relation, which is 
the relation of the suffering object. But as the effect frequently may be 
conceived as the suffering object, the forms of these relations also are fre- 
quently employed one instead of the other; e. g. to beg leave, and Utt\ 
<5rlau6ni§ bitten; ben #rteben wiinfc&en, and wish for peace. On that 
account the forms of the factitive relation are taken by the verbal substan- 
tives, $ecjierbe nacfc, Serlangen nadD, desire after • 2Dunfd& nacfj, wish for; 
Ajoffhlinjj $11, hope for; 2?efef)( gu, command of; (Srlau&nif? git, permission 
to (§ 1 74) ; though the verbs from which they are derived govern the geni- 
tive or accusative case. 

The factitive relation,— e. g. in the sentence, they made my brother pre- 
sident, they chose my brother/or their president , — being an objective relation 
to the verb (made, chose), also differs from that kind of attributive relation in 
which a substantive is in apposition to another substantive; e. g. do you 
know my brother the president? As, however, the object in the factitive 
relation is frequently identified with the object in the accusative, or with 
the subject in the nominative case, the forms of the attributive relation 
also stand frequently for those of the factitive relation ; e. g. creaverunt or 
fecerunt fratrem proesidem. 

Observation 2. — tn German the demonstrative adverb fo, and the inter- 
rogative and relative adverb trie, frequently denote the logical factitive 
relation; e.g. er nennt ficfo fo, he gives himself that name; er fjei£t fc, 
that is his name; er ftefjt bie @a#e fo (flit* eine folcfce) an, he views the 
matter in this light; trie fjetjn er ? what is his name? trie f?e&|t btl bte 
©atfre an ? what do you think of the matter ? In the same way, ale, as, 
which, like the corresponding quam and quum in Latin, must be considered 
as a relative adverb, is used to express the logical factitive relation. The 
adverb ate has the same signification, and denotes that which a person or 
thing is thought to be, when it is connected with a substantive in apposition ; 
e.g. metn better a\$ bev ein^ige @rfre, my cousin being the only heir: or 


SYNTAX. 227 

when it stands with a substantive expressive of manner; e. g. ev jTunb fca 
a 1$ etlt niufpger 3 u f# auei< > ne stood there as an idle spectator*. 


§ 184. 

The preposition ^u, which, as we have seen (§ 183), gene- 
rally expresses the factitive relation, forms the Supine by being- 
united with the infinitive of verbs (§ 75). The supine accord- 
ingly serves also to point out a factitive relation, but its use is 
in general limited to the moral factitive relation, to an action 
intended or wished for, a purpose or design. Thus we say 
in German, as in English, id) Bitte ©te mtr £U fbl#en, I request 
you to follow me; er jfre&t (Mb $lt evlcmgCtt, he endeavours to 
get money ; er &emtt(jt (idb £ U #efallen, he is anxious to please ; 
C$ btetlt, Stdb $U uBer^euqen, it serves to convince you; $eneic)t 
£U fc^CV^en, disposed to jest. In the same way the supine 
follows verbs denoting advice, wish, command, permission, 
&c, though these verbs otherwise may govern the accusative 
case (§ 183, Obs. 1); e. g. id) ratlje bit $u fcbwet^en, I advise 
you to be silent ; tcib Ijoffe, or id) ttHWfdbc, U)ll ^U felKH, 1 hope, 
or I wish to see him ; er Befall, or er erlauBte mtr, ^ tl BleiBcn, 
he ordered, or he permitted, me to stay. When a design or 
purpose is expressed, the preposition unt is frequently placed 
before the supine; e.g. id) fomme tttlt bid) £tt Umruen, I come 
in order to warn you; er #d;t tit bte ©tatt ttltt ttlit einem 
gmtnbe jtlfammen 3U fommeit, he goes to town in order to meet 
a friend. 

In German, however, the supine is frequently employed 
instead of the attributive (§ 172), as well as of the objective 
genitive (§ 180), when it expresses the moral relation of an 
action. In this way the German supine frequently stands in 
the place of the English participial nouns with the preposition 

of. We say, geit 311 arBeiten, time to work; anjratt ju arBeiten, 

instead of working; ba$ %$tXQX\ii$m ©te $U feljen, the pleasure 
of seeing you; bte .6offmtll# £U fie^en, the hope of victory; 
bet 2Bltnfcb ^U §tfdktii the desire to please; er ift ftol) bidb 


@ie forbert e$ <tf$ etne ©unft, geroafjt, e$ ifjr ai& tint ©trafe. Sch. 
3d) fomme «U ©efanbter be$ @erid)t$. Sch. 
©pred)t rtU ©efcteter. Sch. 

3d) wilt meiti Sefcen o(S etn ©efd)enf attS (Fu«ti £cinben empfiutgeu. Sch. 

Q2 


228 SYNTAX. 

WHeber Hi fe^Ctt, be is happy to see you again ; et ijt HUtbe il)\\ 
HI untcvl^altcn, he is tired of entertaining him ; er fiivd)tet ftdb, 
bit' Ht 6e#e$nen, he is afraid of meeting you ; et 4 fcfratttt ftd) btC 
■2©al)ri;ett HI fa^en, he is ashamed of telling the truth. 

When the supine follows verbs or adjectives which govern 
a particular preposition, this preposition is usually placed be- 
fore the supine, but contracted with the demonstrative pro- 
noun ba§ (§ 125); e. g. cr felnit ftdb banad), bid) £tt feljen, he 
longs after seeing you; er 6efJef)t bar ait f eingelaflen ^tt n?ef= 

ben, he insists upon being admitted; it ift ftol$ bataitf CUT 
X^CUtfdbcv ^t fcin, he is proud of being a German ; et bcnft 
lltdbt bar a 11 ^UVticf^ttf el)ten, he does not think of returning; e$ 
btent ba$U bid) $U Wavuttt, it serves to warn you. 

The accusative relation also is expressed by the supine after 
the verbs, atlfbtlgin, 6e$tmien, to begin; attflwn, to cease; 
pjTeCjCtt, to use; untewet)men, to undertake; Wd$m, to venture; 
l)inbevn, to prevent one from doing something; and other verbs 
which denote the performance or non-performance of a real 
action (real relation); e.g. er f'dx\Qt an HI fpredben, he begins 
to speak; er l)brt CUtf HI atljmeri, he ceases breathing; er |?jTegt 
HI fftgCtfc he is used to say. 

The supine, on the other hand, cannot be employed to ex- 
press the accusative relation after verbs expressing a know- 
ledge or an opinion {logical relation), and it is therefore im- 
properly used after evfemten, to acknowledge ; fcefemien and 

t qejM;)ett, to confess ; er^len and 6cvicfrten, to report; v erftcfcem, 

to assure ; tfevmutJKn, to suppose, &c. After the following- 
verbs only its use is sanctioned by practice : ^lail&en, ttml)tten, 

meimn, to think ; jicb ein&ilben, to imagine ; t?or#e6en, 6eE;aitpterr, 
to pretend ; fdbeinen, to appear ; e. g. er .glaitBt, Seljauptet, ajfct 

VOX, bk &dd)Z HI fenwn, he pretends to know the business. 

The difference between the real and the logical relation, the 
former of which only has generally the supine, is particularly 
shown in the verbs ttnjjen, tJCt^cffen, fccnfen, which have the 
supine when they refer to an action; e. g. id) tt)ti§ ijjn ^u fces 
[;anbkn, I know how to manage him ; id) \)0&t tJCr^cflcn t\X0a§ 

^u tt;tm, I forgot to do something; id) benfe rmdb £onbon nt 

gefyen, I think of going (intend to go) to London. Whilst, 
on the other hand, they take the accusative or an accessory 


SYNTAX. 229 

sentence when they express the mere act of the mind, viz. 
knowing, forgetting, thinking ; e. g. id) tt>d£ ba$ id) UttVecfrt 
l;a6e, I know that I am in the wrong ; id) l^atte Wgejfen tag 
id) e£ il)m UCtfpVOdbett Ijatte, I had forgotten my having promised 
him ; id) btnfo fcag alle$ Ud)t if?, I think all is right. 

The supine can in no case be employed in German after 
verbs signifying knowledge or opinion, when these verbs 
already have an accusative which would be the subject of the 
supine. The English expressions, I suppose him to be a fool, 
I believe him to have gone, I remember him to have said, must 
be translated by the formation of an accessory sentence: tdfj 
wvnwtbe, t>a$ er em Slaxt \% id) #lau6e ba$ er .qeganqen tfr, 
&c. The same applies to the verbs ttutnfcfjCtt and Vtxlawgm. 

The supine also follows the preposition ojnie, without, which 
in English is construed with the participial nouns ; e. g. oi)m 
£U ttnjjen, without knowing. 

Ohservation. — Expressions like, he taught me, or, I did not know what to 
say, how to speak, where to go s cannot be rendered in the same way in 
German by the supine : we say, er fcefcfcrte mtcfr, or icfy ttm£te tttcfct, wa$ 

id) fagen follte, n?ie \&> fpvecfcen foUte, wofyin kfy ge&en fcHte. 


§185. 

The proper use of those prepositions by which the relations 
of cause are expressed being attended with some difficulties, 
it is thought expedient to subjoin the following general obser- 
vations on the English prepositions employed to denote the 
relation of causality, and on the forms corresponding to each 
of them in German. 

The preposition of expresses the relation of the objective as 
well as of the attributive genitive (§ 172, 180), and is commonly 
rendered in German by the genitive case. In some instances 
of the attributive relation, however, of is rendered by VOtt 
(§ 173) ; and other prepositions (§ 174) are employed when it 
stands for the attributive genitive of the object. In the objec- 
tive genitive relation, of is frequently rendered by VCU, an, 
iiber, auf, vor, and au$ (§ 180); e.g. to speak of (von), to 
remind of (an), to complain of (ii6er), proud of (auf), to be 
afraid o/"(vcr), to consist qf(aii$). The moral ablative rela- 


230 SYNTAX. 

tion in expressions like, of my own choice, is expressed by 
<W$ (§181). 

The preposition to, if it implies the dative relation (of a 
person), is generally rendered in German by the dative case 
(§ 179); e. g. to offer to a person: if, on the other hand, it 
expresses the factitive relation (of a thing), it is rendered by 
the preposition £tt (§ 183) ; e. g. to force to, to your advantage. 
Thus, for instance, we distinguish bit ©arten adjbrt ttieiwm 
2)tttber, the garden belongs to my brother ; and fcer (Bavtcn 
#e|)0rt $U bem ©UtC, the garden belongs to the farm (makes 
a part of it). 

When the preposition by stands with a verb in the passive 
voice, and denotes the active subject (e. g. he is recommended 
by his teacher), or if it expresses the real cause in the ablative 
relation (e. g. ill from the heat), it is rendered in German by 
VOW (§ 179, 181). When it denotes a means (e. g. by force, 
by imposture), it is rendered by biivdt) ; and if it denotes a 
logical cause, it is rendered by Cillv, an, or wad); e. g. to 
know by (au$) experience, to know one by (an) his voice, to 
judge of one by (nadb) his language (§ 181). 

The preposition for in English expresses different kinds of 
the factitive relation, which in German are distinguished by 
different prepositions. When for denotes the real factitive 
relation, e. g. ripe for the harvest, too weaker an under- 
taking ; or a purpose, e. g. it is for your good, for that pur- 
pose ; it is commonly rendered in German by ^u. If it 
expresses the moral factitive relation, e. g. to ask for bread, to 
court for love, it is rendered by um ; if it denotes a price, 
e. g. for ten pounds, and if it implies for the advantage or 
satisfaction of a person, e. g. to intercede, to fight for a per- 
son, it is rendered by flit (§183). Elliptical expressions like, 
as for me, as for this question, are rendered by an accessory 
sentence; e.g. wa3 mid) Sctrijft, wa$ biefe Sraqe fcetvifft, as to 
what concerns me, or this question. In expressions like, that 
is impossible for me, the tailor makes a coat for me, for is 
rendered either by the dative case or by the preposition fuv 
(^ 179). For is employed in English also to express the ab- 
lative relation ; in which case it is rendered by prepositions 
corresponding to this relation ; e. g. to die for (CiUv) want, to 


SYNTAX. 231 

weep for (vox) joy, he loves her for (ive#e») her amiable quali- 
ties (§181). 

When from expresses the genitive relation (to free from 
fear), it corresponds to the German preposition VOW (§ 180); 
when it expresses the ablative relation (from avarice, from 
want), it is translated by au$ (§ 181). 

With is generally translated by ttttt; it corresponds to VOX 
in expressions like, to starve with hunger, to languish "with 
thirst, to tremble with fear (§ 181). 

At is rendered by the preposition iihiX in expressions like, 
to be vexed, to be offended, to be angry, to rejoice, to be 
afflicted, at a thing (§ 180): and on is rendered by the same 
German preposition in expressions like, to speak, to preach 
on a subject (§ 180). 

Relation of Locality. 

§ 186. 
When the relation of locality is a relation to the speaker, it 
is expressed either by the relational adverbs of place (§ 138), 
e.g. CV V00i)nt l;ter, he lives here; CV #e&t bovt^in, he goes 
there ; or by prepositions connected with pronouns, e. g. cr 
fic^t VOX mix, he stands before me. When, on the other 
hand, it is a relation to other persons or things, it is in general 
expressed by prepositions, the proper use of which has been 
explained in Sect. II. Chap. V. (on Prepositions). Cases 
without a preposition denote the relation of locality only in 
the expressions, allct DvtCH (genitive), in all places; and CV 
fommt be$ 2fte#e£ (genitive), he comes by that way ; and in 
expressions like, er $el;t or er nmnbevt ben WtQ or biefen !XBe# 
(accusative), he walks this way. 

Relation of Time. 

§ 187. 

The relation of time refers either to the time which is pre- 
sent to the speaker, and is in that case expressed by the rela- 
tional adverbs of time (§ 138), e. g. er wixb bcilb fomtW11> he 
will come soon; ev ift q eft em, or t)eute an#efommen, he 


232 SYNTAX. 

arrived yesterday or today : or it refers to the time of another 
action or event ; in which case it is for the most part expressed 
by prepositions (Sect. II. Chap. 7.); e.g. e£ fvtert tttl Winter, 
it freezes in winter; er tvixb VOX £>ffem, or nadb btei Za$tn 
afcreifen, he will set out before Easter, or after three days. 

When however a point of time (quando) is to be expressed, 
cases may be employed. A point of time is denoted in a defi- 
nite way by the accusative case, as in English; e. g. er iff 
tuefen 3)?or\gen t)kV ^ewefen, he has been here this morning; 

er #ef)t nacbjren 2)iontaC} nadb bev ©tabt, he goes to town 

next Monday; er ift bin erjlen 53? at #e6omi, he is born the 
first of May. A point of time is, on the other hand, expressed 
in an indefinite way by the genitive case; e.g. ev Ctrbeitet be$ 
D)?orc}en3 or 2?onmtta#3, fdbtaft 9?adbmitta#3 unb gefct 
5lBenbs or be 5 9(6en&3 in' 3 ©efcatifpiel, he works in the 
morning, in the forenoon, sleeps in the afternoon, and goes to 
the play in the evening; er ge^t ©0 mi tag 3 ill bte j?irdje 5 he 
goes to church on Sundays; er frtttt etne3 Xa#e$ $U tttir, he 
came to me one day. Of the same description are the forms, 
Ctnfan£$, at the beginning; J>etrtt#e» ZaQi§, now-a-days ; ntttfc 
ler ^Betle, in the meanwhile; nadbjfer Xage, one of these days; 
and some others. 

The duration or measure of time (quamdiu), like the mea- 
sure of other things, is expressed by the accusative case (§ 182); 
e. g. er tfr ben $ a 113 en Xa$ 6efcbaftt#t, he is employed the 
whole day; er I>1t ^ttnbertjU!^ gelefct, he has lived a 
hundred years. 

The relation of time is also expressed by those forms of the 
participles which we have called Gerunds (§ 140) ; e. g. in b&$ 

3mtmer tretenb, erblicfte icb einen alten greunb, entering the 

room (when I entered), I beheld an old friend; j?autn an$e= 
fommen retfete er n»ieber flfc, scarcely arrived (when he was 
arrived), he departed again (see § 189). 

Relation of Manner. 

§ 188. 

The relation of manner is for the most part expressed by 
notional adverbs of manner, i. e. by adjectives and substan- 


SYNTAX. 233 

tives turned into adverbs; e.g. miuiblicf) 6evicj)ten, to report 
orally; a 6 fid[)tUdb 6cldbt^en, to offend purposely; #efdbtt>tnb 
fpvedbeil, to speak quickly; falfcf) fcfnwen, to swear falsely. 
Gerunds, i. e. participles used as adverbs, are employed in 
the same way; e. g. er fprad) Idcfednb, he spoke smiling; ev 
fftttt ^clattfen, he came running (§ 140)*. The relation of 
manner, however, is also expressed by the genitive case and 
by prepositions. The genitive case was more usual in old 
German (§ 140), and has been retained only in some expres- 
sions; e.g. (iinm alh$ (gmjle^ ermaljnen, to admonish one 
in full earnest; iuix>emcbteter @ad)c a6^teE;cn, to go off 

without accomplishing one's purpose {re infecta); fiefyenbett 
Sltf?e& immediately (stante pede) ; $litcfltc{>er fS^cifc, fortu- 
nately; x»crjtol;lencr StBeife, secretly (by stealth) ; $evat>e$ 2Be#c3, 
straightways ; a6 t 9CtebetCt 03?agctl, in the manner agreed upon ; 
Cjebttbvenber 33?agen, in due manner ; and some others (§ 140)f. 
The relation of manner assumes the form of the factitive rela- 
tion (§ 183) in expressions like, er ift %lim ©tev&etl (tbttidb) 
franf, he is mortally sick; bd$ 2?ilb tft £UW ©predben (fprfc 
dbcnb) al^nlidb, the picture is a speaking likeness; er ijt ^Uttl 
®ntfe$en (entfe^licb) fragtidj, he is frightfully ugly. 

The relation of manner is moreover expressed by the fol- 
lowing prepositions : 

Manner is denoted by nrit in expressions like, et avBcttCt 
tttit £ufr, he works with pleasure; cr tatt^et tttit ^ttftarib, he 
dances gracefully; CV fpticbt wit 2luivbe, he speaks with dig- 
nity J. It expresses an instrument ; e. g« m it $ii§ CH tVCtcn, to 
tread under foot; mtt bem 2Mle fytektt, to play at ball; tttit 

bem ?3?ef]er fcbnetben, to cut with a knife; mtt Ddbfhi pfltt^en, 

to plough with oxen. 

3lt expresses the manner of going from place to place in 

* tf&nnten rotr md)t fynrmtoS uctgnualidje £nge fpinnen, lit ft i q bn$ letd)te SeOeti 
genuntten 1 Sch. 

© c fd) a f 1 t q it n e r m it b ( t d) fcefdjttft er fie. Sch. 

©olten mir jit ©rurtbe gefyen, meit beine ©ityne toittfyenb fid) frefefyben ? Sch. 
f SBirfl bu'fi Mtmoflcn, rufyigen @eftd)te$ uor biefen 3Krtiin ju treten ? >SWi> 

4>t>tji bu bn$ £tftf)orn flingen mod) tig en 9? it fee? £c/*. 
t £i>rt e$ tn i t GHeid)miitfy <in. SWi. 

£rngt e$ mtt Grrgefcttng. Sch. 

@pred)t mtt ©efrtffenfyeit. Sch. 

2)u tttttft mtt ftotjer 2BU(fityt tf)r @efd)enf mtt $ii0eu. SWi. 


234 SYNTAX. 

expressions like, ^u Staffer, 3« £anbe, ^u gufe, ^u ^Jfetbc reifen, 
to travel by water, by land, on foot, on horseback. 

The preposition attf is used only with the substantive -ifijeife, 
manner, either expressed or understood ; e. g. auf Cine IKUe 

3£eife, in a new manner; auf'3 freunblicfrfie (auf tie freunb= 

ltdbjre 20etfe), in the kindest manner ; attf Seutfcf), in German ; 
auf (SnaUfdb, in English. 2ltt, in the same way as auf, is 
used in the formation of the superlative degree from adverbs 
of manner; e.g. am frcimbltcf)(tcn, the most kindly (§ 141). 

3*11 and untet denote manner in expressions like, tttt ©cijle 
lUlb in ber 2£aljrt;eit anBeten, to worship in spirit and in truth ; 
(£twa$ im >$0XM ti;un, to do something in a fit of passion ; 

(?twa3 in 2>erottt, in ©ebulb evtragen, to bear with humility 
and patience*; ginen lUTter Xl;mnen Bitten, to entreat one 
with tears. 

§189. 
The Gerund (§ 140) is employed in German, as in English, 
to express not only the relations of time and manner (§ 187, 
188), but also the relations of cause and condition. Thus 

we say, buvclj ©eutfcblatib retfenb, &e#e#nete er ntancfrem alten 

2Mamiten, travelling through Germany (time), he met many 
old acquaintances f ; and \{)\\\ bie .jjanb bvitcfcnb naljm er 
9(6fdbtebj shaking his hands (manner), he took leave % : but we 

say also, fon alien gveunben uerlaffen nwjjte er ^u ©vunbe 

$eljcn, being forsaken by all his friends (cause), he must 

perish §; and ntidb an #n anfc|)ltej?enb wevbe id) fie#cn, a6er 
#etrennt von il)\n werbe id) unterlie.qen, joining him (con- 

dition) I shall conquer, but separated from him (condition) 
I shall be conquered ||. The use of gerunds, however, is 

* @o(( id)'s im (Jrnft erfiilien miiffen? Sch. 
3n 4?nft unb (File baut ber @o(bnt oon Seiniuanb fid) feme (eirfjte ©tnbt. £c/j. 

t 2)iefe$ &d mtr benfenb, fd)(tef id) ein. Sch. 

j: 5Bertrauenb nnfjt fid) ber ©create. £c/*. 
Grr n>ifl flitrmenb fBnfyn fid) fcrecfyen. <SWj. 

§ 25et eiijnen ftrnft uid)t nui)t uerttauenb, nxuibt er fein £erj ben bunfien tfiin-' 
ften ju. Sch. 

^ein Slb&ilb bnlbet fie, oiiein bn£ forpcriid)e SP3ovt uerefjrenb. Sch. 

|| (fntiuorfen fclofj ift's ein gemeiuer gteuei, u d 1 1 f ti r> r t ift'S ein unfter6(td> Un.- 
ternefjmcn. &:/*. 

Grinmni entlnffen nnS bem fid)em 38infe( be6 ^etjenS, f)in<ut£gege&en in be$ 
£e&cn$ grembe, getycrt bie Xi)<it jcnen tucfifd)en -D?ad) ten nn, bie fcineS *Wcenfd)cn ^unft 
uertnuilid) nmd)t. Sch. 


SYNTAX, 235 

not so extensive in German as in English ; and especially 
the relations of time, cause, and condition, expressed by the 
gerund in English, are more commonly rendered in German 
by accessory sentences, or by co-ordinate sentences connect- 
ed by the copulative conjunction unb; e. g. in bent er bltrcl? 

®eutfdblanb reifete, ba er vevlajTen war, m\m icb midb aits 

fd[)tiCJ?C. Generally the use of such gerunds as are compounds 
with auxiliaries {having received your letter, being convinced of 
your affection), is not received in German, nor can gerunds 
be used in German when they have a subject different from 
the subject of the sentence ; e. g. my father losing his health, 
we left the country ; the business being done, / went home. In 
expressions of that description, the German idiom requires 
the gerund to be turned into an accessory adverbial sentence, 
in which the particular relation, of time, manner, cause, or 
condition, is pointed out by its respective conjunctions (see 
§ 197, 198, 199, 201); e.g. nadb&Cttt (after) id) 3&ren $ricf 
erl)alten l;atte, &c. ; aU (when) or ba (since) bev 2?ater feme 

©efltnbjjett t?erlor, &c. In some particular expressions, how- 
ever, a gerund is employed, the subject of which is not the 
same with the subject of the sentence; e. g. er &at, btefen 

gall au3$enommen, mtmer reblicf) ge&anbelt, he has always 

acted honestly, this case excepted; ba$ $3lld) foftet, b C 11 Of in- 
fo a nb a Sieved) net, fitnf @ulben, this book costs five florins, 
exclusive of the binding; er trat, bte .ganbe mit QdUiX 13 C= 
fie eft, til ba$ %i\X\\V\tr, he entered the room, his hands stained 
with blood *. In expressions like, b i e 2B a f f e n in b t X .£> a n b 
nal^eten fie, they approached with arms in their hands; eill 

^inb a uf invent @c{rooj?e fag fte ba, she sat there with 

a child upon her knees f; the gerund (tyafceilb, having) is 
omitted by way of ellipsis. 

* 3n einetn (frfer ftnnben wit, ben 5231 tcf fhttmn in i>a$ bbe %tlb tyinauSgericfytf t 
Sch. 

@ie ftngt f>innu$ in bie ftnftere 9?tid)t, b<\$ 2Uige uom SBeinen getrii&et- 5Wi. 

2)a$ *£>aar uenuilbert lag ber ©cfyotte £ut( nuf feinem Sager. £c/i. 

i 2)ie £anb nm ©cfywertc fcfyauen fte ftd) btol)enb uon Oeiben Ufem an. -St/?. 

2)a tommt fte felfeft, ben <5i)riflu$ in bet £anb, bie £offaf)t:t unb i>ie 
SEBetttuft in bem £erjen. Sch. 

@o tmtfj td> fallen in bee 5einbe$ £anb, t><\$ nafye 9tetiunfl*ufer ira ©e* 
fid)te. ScA. 


236 SYNTAX. 


Chapter IV. — Syntax of Compound Sentences, 

§190. 
It has been already observed, that sentences are compounded 
by way of subordination (§ 152), when one of them may be 
considered as standing in the place of a substantive, adjective, 
or adverb, which is a factor of a combination in the other 
sentence ; e. g. he reported that the Icing died (the death of 
the king), he was at work before the sun rose (early). The 
sentence which thus takes the place of a factor in the other 
sentence (that the king died, and before the sun rose) is 
termed an Accessory sentence, whilst the other sentence to 
which it belongs (he reported, and he was at work) is termed a 
Principal sentence. The same sentence, however, e. g. he 
reported, which is a principal sentence with regard to its 
accessory sentence (that the king died), may again be an 
accessory sentence with regard to another principal sentence; 
e. g. it is a fact, that he reported, that the king died : and an 
accessory sentence (that he reported) may be a principal sen- 
tence with regard to another accessory sentence (that the king 
died). 

Accessory sentences may consist of any factor of the pre- 
dicative, attributive, or objective combinations, excepting the 
predicate. 

Accessory sentences are frequently abridged again into a 
supine (§ 184), having the power of a substantive, or into a 
gerund (§ 189), having the power of an adverb; e.g. he prac- 
tises the law in order to make a fortune, instead of for the 
purpose of making a fortune ; the tutor very much attached to 
his pupil, instead of who is very much attached, &c. ; reading 
the letter he grew pale, instead of whilst he read the letter, 
&c. Supines, adjectives, participles, and gerunds, which thus 
stand in the place of an accessory sentence, frequently take a 
place different from that of other substantives, adjectives, or 
adverbs, in the construction of a sentence ; on which account 
they are distinguished by the denomination of abridged sen- 
tences. 


SYNTAX. 237 

Observation. — It has been stated already, and it will still more clearly 
appear from what follows, that the use of abridged sentences is far less ex- 
tensive in German than in English. 


§ 191. 
According to the relation in which accessory sentences stand 
to the principal sentence, they are either substantive, or adjec- 
tive, or adverbial sentences. When an accessory sentence forms 
the subject of the principal sentence, or is equivalent to a sub- 
stantive in the genitive, accusative, ablative, or factitive rela- 
tions, it is termed a substantive sentence (see § 193) : when it 
is equivalent to an attributive adjective, it is termed an adjec- 
tive sentence (see§ 194- ) : or when it stands in the relations of 
locality, time, or manner, it is termed an adverbial sentence 
(see § 195). 

§ 192. 

The connection of accessory with principal sentences is 
expressed by the subordinative conjunctions (<§ 152). These 
conjunctions may be considered as formed of two members, 
viz. a demonstrative pronoun, ^standing in the principal sen- 
tence, and a relative pronoun, standing in the accessory sen- 
tence. Both members still occur in the Latin conjunctions 
post ea quam, it a ut, eo quod; in the French, par ce que ,• 
and in the English expressions, I know that which you mean, 
that tree which bears no fruit, he is not there where you 
expected him, when he commands then I must obey. The 
demonstrative, standing in the principal sentence, generally 
takes the form corresponding to the relation (of causality, 
time, manner, &c.) in which the accessory sentence stands to 
the principal sentence; and the relative, standing in the acces- 
sory sentence, being a factor of a combination, either pre- 
dicative, attributive, or objective, in the accessory sentence, 
generally takes the form appropriate to this office. In the 
subordinative connection either the demonstrative or the rela- 
tive, or even both members of the conjunction, are frequently 
omitted; e. g. I know (that) what you mean, the coat (which) / 
have on, I did not hear of him since (then, when) / left him : 
but both of them are always understood ; and all subordinative 


238 SYNTAX. 

conjunctions, accordingly, which do not consist of a demon- 
strative and relative pronoun, e. g. bet — HH v lc{KV, he — who ; 
fo — bag, so — that ; ba — WO, there — where ; batltl — W&m\, then 
— when ; weiitt — fo, if — then ; are to be regarded either as 
relative pronouns, the demonstrative corresponding to which 
is understood, e. g. u?er and \Vd$, who and what ; JVC, where ; 
aU, when; mttoh if; 06, whether; ba, as (Lat. quum) ; ba$, 
that (French que) : — or they are to be considered as demon- 
strative pronouns, the relative of w T hich is understood : these 
are in German generally compounded with a preposition ; 
e. g. ttadbbem, after (that) ; inbettt, whilst (that) ; fettbem, since 
(that) : — or, lastly, they are merely prepositions^ both the de- 
monstrative and relative pronouns being understood ; e. g. elje, 
before ; fett, since ; Jfeil, because *. 

Observation. — The origin of the subordinative conjunctions, af£, as (Lat. 
quum, quam); Ob, if, whether; je, the (Lat. quo) ; tt>Ci(, because (quia); is 
obscure : but they may nevertheless be regarded as relative adverbs. 

Substantive Sentences. 

§ 193. 

We distinguish the following kinds of substantive-accessory 
sentences. 

First,— those which stand in the place of a supine or abstract 
substantive. Accessory sentences of this description are fre- 
quently employed in German in the room of the English par- 
ticipial noun ; and they are always employed when the parti- 
cipial noun cannot be rendered by an infinitive, or by a supine, 
or by a substantive; e. g. your Jlattering his vanity gives me 

much pain, ba$ gte feiiict @ittifeit fcfmteidbdn, tbut mix fd)v 

Uib; I am convinced of his having betrayed the secret, id) bin 
.qeunj?, ba$ cr ba§ (Betyemmtg vm&tfym l)Cit Accessory sen- 
tences of this kind are always joined to the principal sentence 
by ba§ (that), which is distinguished by its orthography from 
the relative pronoun ba3 in its usual sense ; the substantive 
demonstrative pronoun in the principal sentence being at the 
same time expressed or understood ; e.g. id) bin beffen #Cttu(?, 


* ©rommnttf. <$ 224. 


SYNTAX. 239 

or id) bin ^eroig, tag er em .qroge^ 2?ermogen 6e(t$t, I am sure 

of his being in possession of a large fortune*. When a relation 
of causality is expressed by a preposition, the demonstrative 
pronoun is commonly contracted with the preposition (§ 125); 

e. g. 2D?an fpridbt tat? on, tag @ie wrretfen ivollen, they speak of 

your being about to travel ; id) Bin jlol$ tar ait f, bag @ie ttlicfe 
ttttt etncm ^Cflldbc 6ec|)rett, I am proud of your favouring me 

with a visit; er I) at taturcfr fein 3?cvnibqen tferloren, tag er 

antevn £U f id trattte, he has lost his fortune by trusting too 
much to others f . When the substantive-accessory sentence 
expresses a quoted assertion, the conjunction tag is for the 
most part omitted, and then the sentence assumes the con- 
struction of a principal sentence. Thus we say, er er^aljlte, er 

fei in 3talten #ewefen, instead of er er^atylte, tag er in 5taltcn 

$ett>efen fei, he said (that) he had been in Italy J. This prac- 
tice, which is in use in English only after some verbs, e. g. to 
think, to say, to ivish, is generally received in German in all 
quotations, in which the verb is in the conjunctive mood (§ 164). 
After verbs, however, which imply a wish, request, or command, 
the conjunction tag can be thus omitted only when one of the 
auxiliary verbs of mood, tttb#en, follen, JVOlkn, is employed in 
the accessory sentence; e. g. id) 6at, er tttb^e l)kv 6lei6en, 1 
requested that he might stay here; er tJCtfpradb, er ittolle 
fommen, he promised that he would come; er btfal)l, id) fcllte 
C}efyen, he ordered that I should go. We say, on the other 

hand, idb Bttte tag bit 6let6e)r, id) 6efet;le tag tu #e|jefr. 

When the accessory sentence is in the factitive relation of 
design or purpose (§ 183), the conjunction tamit or ailf tag 
(in order that) is commonly employed instead of tag ; e. g. er 
fpart fein ©elt, tamit, or atif tag, er im filter nid)t SDfawjel 
kite, he is saving of his money in order that he may not be in 


* 3) <10 30r fie fyflgt, t>a& macfyt fie mir ntd)t fd)(ed)ter, Sch. 

©erorbnrt tft tm engftfdfren GJefefc, ba$ jeber Slngeffagte buret) ©efdjwDMe uon 

fetneS g(etd)en foil gertd)tet roerben. Sch. 
3)n$ ntteS umfmt mid), t>a$ id) fjeute Don metuem ©(tide fd)etben mug. Sch. 
f 3d) ffltin nid)t mem ©enuffen bam it &e|"d)nHd)tigen bnjj metn SSJt\mt> i(>n nid)t 

fcetrogen. Sch. 
t 2>n3 rofiren bte <p(<ineten, fagte nut bee ^iif;tci% fie tegierten bn$ @efd)itf, brum 
feien fie <\U ftimtge geOttbet. Sch. 


240 SYNTAX. 

want in his old age; fprtdb betttltc|), bamit id) bid) WiftcfK? 
speak distinctly, in order that I may understand you *. 

Secondly ; — accessory sentences which correspond to a par- 
ticiple or adjective used substantively. These are connected 
with the principal sentence by the substantive-relative pronoun 
(ttJCV, Wd3) in the accessory, and by the substantive-demonstra- 
tive pronoun (be?, bci$), either expressed or understood, in the 
principal sentence (see § 194); e.g. n>e? .gefuttb iff Bvattcfct 
fetncn 5l?$t, he who is in good health (a healthy person) does not 
require a physician; JtK? ti\$t, bet fiie^lt, he who lies will 
steal; id) fa$e (bd$) tt>a» tdb Wdj?, I tell that which I knowf. 
Instead of the relative we?, we use also bit (§ 130) ; e. g. bem 
tvatte id) mdbt, bet ltt#t, I do not trust him who tells lies J. 
When the relation of the accessory sentence is expressed by a 
preposition, the demonstrative pronoun is never omitted, as in 
English, nor contracted with the prepositions; e. g. id) Wii§ 
tticfjt^ t>0H bem, W&$ bit fa#f?, I know nothing of what you 
tell me; e? tft frol) ii6e? ba$, wa$ id) $m #efa#t l;afce, he is 
glad of what I told him ; e? i(l w it bem ^ufrteben *va$ e? l;at, 

he is satisfied with what he possesses. 

Thirdly ; — accessory sentences which, though expressing 
locality, time, or manner, are considered as substantive sen- 
tences, on account of their either being the subject itself of the 
principal sentence, or standing in the relation of causality to the 

subject; e.g. n?ami cr fommen wixb, wo er wofcnen wivb, unb 
\vk er fid) Betra^en nurb, iff un#ettug, when he will come, 

where he will live, and how he will conduct himself, is uncer- 
tain §. Of the same description are the sentences having the 
conjunction o& (if, whether), which, as an adverb of mood, 
implies possibility (§ 138); e.g. id) tt>eig ttid)t, 0& e? fommen 
tturb, I do not know whether he is to come ||. 

* 2)amit fie anbete £flnbe nid)t etfuufe, Dot id) bie 3JMnen an. Sch. 
f Sen fd)terft bet 93etg nid)t, n>er barnuf gefjoten. Sch. 

SR3rt$ i()H Cfurf) tvibtig tnad)t, mncfyt mit ir>ti wexti). Sch. 

£<i£t mid) widen, rcaS id) 511 fittd)ten fynbe. Sch. 
\ 2)en modjt id) roijTen, bet ber £teufte mtr uon 2f((en tft. Sch. 

3d) bin nid)t oon benen, bie mit SBorteti tnpfet finb. St/e. 
§ Du fief) ft jetjt ein, »u i e tteu id) bit getntfyen. Sch. 

20 i e id) bie ©tuntt fjnfTe, n>ci0 bie SBeft. £c/z. 
|| Gr$ mufj fid) etfffiren, 06 id) ben 5«unb, 06 id) ben SBiitet foff ent&eljten. SWj. 

Sfjr fofft etflnten, 6 5f»v euten £ettn uetrntf)en rcofft, obet treu ifym bienen. Sch. 


SYNTAX. 241 

Adjective Sentences, 

% 194. 

Adjective accessory sentences are to be considered as attri- 
butive adjectives or participles enlarged into sentences ; e. g. 
a person who is ignorant of his own language (a man ignorant, 
Sec); the trees which I planted (the trees planted by me). 
Adjective-sentences are connected with the principal sentence 
by a demonstrative adjective-pronoun, expressed or under- 
stood in the principal sentence ; e. g. bet, btefer, jetier, berjenkje, 
folc&er (§ 127); and by a relative adjective-pronoun (§ 130) in 
the accessory sentence. The relative pronoun is never omitted 
in German, as is frequently the case in English ; e. g. the trees 
you have planted grow very well : it agrees in number and 
gender with the substantive referred to in the principal sen- 
tence, and takes, as in English, the form (case or preposition) 
corresponding to its office in the accessory sentence. The 
demonstrative foldjjCf is in German always followed by the 
adjective relative pronoun UJCldbct* or bev, and not by a relative 
adverb like the English as ; e.g. folcfje %\)iiXi bie or Welcfre 
im Gaffer le6cn, such animals as live in the water. 

When the substantive-pronoun Jt)Cr or ber, or tt>a$, stands 
in an accessory sentence, it corresponds to an adjective used 
substantively (§193). Accessory sentences of this description 
stand frequently in apposition to a whole sentence ; in which 
case they always have the relative Wa$, either alone, or con- 
tracted with a preposition (WOritBer, WOran, &c. § 125) ; e. g. 

dx tyat fein QSermb^en wtomi, tva$ id) ntdbt nmgte, he has lost 

his fortune, which I did not know; er i)at etne 5lllfieUwt£ 

ev&alten, woriifcer id) mid) fe£r #enwnbert jja6e, he has got a 
commission, at which I have been quite surprised. When 
accessory sentences of this description stand in apposition to 
the first or second personal pronoun, the same pronoun is 
also expressed in the accessory sentence, and the verb agrees 
with it; e. g. %d), ber id) ber ©dbwadbere 6 in, fann bit nid)t 
Wiberjrefyen, I who am the weaker part cannot oppose you ; 
3&r, bit il)x (Mefjrte feib miigt ba$ wiflen, you who are 

scholars must know that. 


242 SYNTAX. 

Adjective-sentences are frequently abridged (§ 1 90) ; e. g. 
ein ©fticf, mil memanben get&eilt, ifi ci^cmltcb fein (SUicf, 
a happiness shared with nobody is no true happiness ; Ctrl 
ftdne$ ©ut mit t>ieX 5)?ii&e evworBen, ntadirt mel?r greu&e, 
a& grojje ©dbage, ojjne unfer 2?erbienjt uotn 3 u faW ««^ 
#efcfaenft, a small fortune acquired by much labour gives 
greater pleasure, than great treasures bestowed on us by 
chance without our exertion. All attributive adjectives (and 
participles), if standing after the substantive referred to, must 
in German be considered as abridged adjective-sentences. We 
admit, however, of abridged adjective-sentences only when 
the substantive referred to stands in either the nominative 
or the accusative case. When therefore, in English, an ad- 
jective or participle stands after the substantive referred to in 
another case, — e. g. he is tired of a business liable to various 
chances, — it is in German either placed before the substantive, 
e. g. cf if! etw$, manm$faltiaat S^fatten mitmwvfemn, @e= 
fd)afte$ ii&evbritfllg ; or turned into a complete accessory sen- 
tence, e. g. ev t(! eme3 ©efc(jafte3, tt>ddbe$ tnannt^fattt^en %& 
fatten unterworfim t|?, u&evbriij]tg. 

Adverbial Sentences. 

%195. 

Those accessory sentences which stand in the relation of 
place, time, or manner, we term adverbial. They are con- 
nected with the principal sentence by an adverbial form of a 
demonstrative pronoun in the principal sentence, and by an 
adverbial form of a relative pronoun in the accessory sen- 
tence ; both being either expressed or understood. Accessory 
causal, conditional, concessive, and comparative sentences, being 
also connected with their principal sentences by the adverbial 
forms of pronouns, they, together with the accessory sentences 
of place, time, and manner, are classed among the adverbial 
sentences. These different kinds of adverbial sentences are, 
however, distinguished by different forms of the connecting 
pronouns. 


SYNTAX. 243 

§ 196. 
Adverbial sentences of place have the relative adverb WO, 
WOljer, or woljin, the demonstrative ba being either expressed 
or understood in the principal sentence ; e. g. (?r iff \ud)t b a, 
wo hi ii)n $i ftnben Ijoffteft, or wo I; in er fommen folltc, he is 
not there, where you hoped to meet him, or where he was to 
come # . 

§ 197. 

The relation of time is in English most frequently expressed 
by the gerund; but the use of that form being very limited in 
German (§ 187), its place is for the most part supplied by 
adverbial sentences, in which the particular kinds of the rela- 
tion are distinguished with great accuracy by means of different 
conjunctions. In expressing co- existence with another event, a 
point of time is indicated by ba, aU, Wami, or Wi\m, when ; 
UUC, as; and hlbcm, whilst: duration of time is signified by 
inbeg, inbefien, tveil, whilst; and tt>c$renb, during. A relation 
to a preceding event is expressed by tmd[)bem, after, and fett, 
since : and a relation to a subsequent event by etye, before, and 
fct$, until. All these conjunctions have for their corresponding 
demonstrative in the principal sentence the adverb ba, used as 
an adverb of time (§ 1S9), and either expressed or understood, 
except Warm, which may also take ba\\\\, and inbem, tnbej?, and 
illbeffcn (Lat. dum, cum), in that time, which do not require any 
corresponding demonstrative: because, though appearing to 
belong to the accessory sentence, they are themselves, properly 
speaking, the demonstrative belonging to the principal sentence. 

The conjunction wamt, instead of which ttJenn is commonly 
used, denotes the relation of time in the most indefinite way, 
like when in English; e. g. we 1111 ii)n chlCt fra#te, fo $<xh CV 
feine $lntW0Vt, when any body asked him, he would not give an 
answer; %d> mtbl fc|)vei6en Winn id) 3^ l;a&e, I shall write 
when I have timef. Its signification being thus indefinite, 

* @ie rotrb gericfytet, wo fte freoeftc. Sch. 

Sftid)t n>o bie golbenc @ere$ iad)t, n>o brt$ Grifen mac^ft in bet «Berge ©djadjt, ba 
entfpringen ber Gftbe ©e&ieter. Sch. 
f ©Dnft, wenn bet SBntet nnSjog, ba wat etn ^reuen, roenn er nneberfnm. Sch. 
Sffieifj id) d& btefe SBcinbe ben SBernitf) etnfnffen, roenn id) frf)fnfe. Sch. 
3eit ift'S bie Unfaffe ju fcerocinen, tvenn fte wixHid) erfdjeinen. Sch. 
R 2 


244 SYNTAX. 

ttJClin is employed also to denote the relation of condition (see 
§ 1 99). Sfiknn cannot be employed, like the English when, to 
express the relation of a definite event in the past time : for 
that purpose we have recourse to the conjunctions ba and aU ; 
e.g. 3$ wax febon ax\ ber $lrfceit, ba or aU bit nocf) fcWiefef?, 
I was already at work when you were still sleeping * : and the 
conjunction ba being now generally employed to denote the 
relation of causality (see § 198), the relation of time is more 
commonly expressed by al$. 

3nbem and nue (as) are employed when an event is to be 
represented as quite simultaneous with another; e.g. inbem 

or tt?te tdb i&n evfclicfte, war ev and) nneber tjerfdbwunben, the 
moment I perceived him he disappeared; bet ©cfmee fc^mi^t, 
inbem er fdllt, the snow melts the moment it falls f. 

Sn&ef? and mbefjen (in the mean time that, whilst) refer to a 
duration of time in an indefinite way; e.g. inbef? or inbeffen 

er bte 3rttim# liefet, will tdb etnen SBxkf fcf)vei6en, whilst he reads 

the papers I shall write a letter J. A correspondence in the 
duration of time is denoted by tt>af}tetlb (during, while), the 
use of Weil as a conjunction of time being rather antiquated; 
e. g. wafyunb id} fcfntifre, maqft bu lefen, whilst I write you 

may read§. 3^€ttl is used also in a causal (see § 198), and 
inbej? in an adversative signification (§ 155) ; e. g. er le&t im 
UefcerfTttg, in beg Seflere bar&en, he lives in luxury whilst better 
people are in want. 

9?acftbent, after; ef>e, before; 6i3, till, until; and feit or feit= 
bem, since ; are used in the same way as the corresponding 
conjunctions in English. (geit and fettbent, however, are not, 
like since, used in a causal signification. 


* ©o fpetjle fte ju ©tertyn iljren <3<men, £>a fie nu$ ©olb mit intern SBufjtert 
trnnf. Sck. 
2>rt ii)t bie SE&flt gefd)et)en ttegt, men't if>r nidf)t meljr ifjr fet&ft. Sck. 
3d) 5af)(te jronn&ig 3<if)te, nU mid) bie un6eiivtn<jftd^e Suft f)in<ui$trie& nuf bn$ 

fefte £<inb. -SWi. 
20ie rourbe mir, (tB id) in'3 3mtere &cr &ird)e trnt. Sch. 
%\i id) ben 93nter fonb, bernufct unb Minb, b<t roeint' id) nid)t. /St/*, 
t SBie et ern>ad)t in feliger SufT, bn fpiefen bie SBnffet tym um bie 3Stufr. ScA. 

2Bie et roinft mit bem Singer, nuf tl)ut fid) ber rceite Stinger. Sch. 
\ 5nbem bu inSgefyeim nuf meine 9tt5tbet()iUfe f>offeft, fo roctben »»it jut 9?ettung 

5ri(T geroinnen. ScA. 
§ Xxii (Fifen mufj gefdjmiebet roerben, n>ei( eg gfiifjt. Sc/j. 


SYNTAX. 245 

§ 198. 

Causal adverbial sentences are connected with the principal 
sentence by the relative adverb bfl, as, and by ttJCit, because 
(which is equivalent to a relative adverb) ; both corresponding 
to the demonstrative adverb fo, either expressed or understood, 
in the principal sentence. 

2Beil (most) generally denotes a moral cause or motive ; e. g. 
s 3)?cm fyat ifyn ntdbt #ern, nml er amtta£enb ift he is not liked 
because he is presumptuous*. It is however used also to 
express a real cause; e. g. er fattTI lltdbt #efjcn, Weil er ehl 
2?em Qehxcd)iX\ i)at, he cannot walk because he has broken his 
leg. 

®a denotes a logical cause (reason), from which an inference 
is drawn, and which in English is expressed either by the con- 
junctions as and since, or by the gerund; e. g. ba bit £Btiimte 

erfroren jmb, mu§ e$ fefn* fait fetn, as or szrcre the trees are 
frozen, it must be very cold; ba ber .gerr ttltt Ctl$ ein 2lmeriFas 
ner t?or$cfMlt nmrbe, rebete id) il)\\ in enqltfcbet ©pradbe an, the 
gentleman being introduced to me as an American, I addressed 
him in English f . 

A cause may also be expressed in an indefinite way by 
intern; e. g. tnbem er £od[) fptelte, t?erlor er tnel (Mb, by play- 
ing high he lost much money; er fcteifct ^u .gaufe, tnbem er 
dnen 3?efuc|) ewartet, he stays at home, as he expects a visit. 

The demonstrative abverb fo is also omitted when the prin- 
cipal sentence stands before the accessory sentence : and even 
when the principal follows after the accessory sentence, fo is 
commonly expressed only when perspicuity requires it; the 
accessory sentence being of great extent. 

§ 199. 
Conditional adverbial sentences are connected with the 
principal sentence by the relative adverb WZ\m (if), with the 

* 2Bet( id) t^m getrnut bi$ fyeut, »vitt id) nud) fyeut tym trnuen. Sch. 
3f)t n>ntt ben QSeiben nie geroogen, roeU id) fie (iefce. Sch. 
«Bei( fid) bie Siirften giitUd) fcefpred)en, raoHen <iud) ant SBotte be$ $rieben$ mt $ t 
fefn. Sch. 
t 9Barum nod) (cinget a&gefonbett teeen, bn wit ueteint Sebet teid)et tuetben. Sch. 
20fl$ fte^n t»ir fyiet nod) feinblid) gefd)teben, ba bie Siitften fid) ftebevoK utn- 
faffen ? 5cA. 


246 SYNTAX. 

demonstrative adverb fc expressed or understood in the prin- 
cipal sentence; e.g. jvemi tit (mite fparff, fo tturff bn mor.qen 
Fctncit $?an$el kiben, if yon save today, you will not suffer 
want tomorrow. Instead of iferm, the conjunctions fo, XVO, 
tvofent, falU (in the case), are also used; e.g. fo bll mid) 
fdblaflff, fct)la$e id) bid) nneber, if you beat me, I will beat you 
again; tt>0 ttiogltd), if possible; ft) of em CV fid) Wet^ert, ^ttrittgen 
Wit ii)n, if he refuses we shall force him; fa 11$ er fra$t, ants 
WOVte ntdbt, in case he should ask, give him no answer *. 

The relative adverb being omitted, conditional sentences 
frequently assume the form of interrogative sentences ; e. g. 

iff er fdbulbi#, fo mug er ^effraft werben, if he is guilty he 
must be punished ; n?are id) an fetner ©telle #en>efen, fo 
t)dtte id) an&evS #e£>anbelt, had I been in his place I should 
have acted otherwise. This mode of expression, which in 
English is admissible only when the verb of the accessory 
sentence is in the conditional mood, is in German applicable 
to all conditional sentences f. The corresponding demon- 
strative adverb fo is expressed only when the principal sen- 
tence stands after the accessory sentence, and perspicuity 
requires it : it must always be expressed when a conditional 
sentence has assumed the form of an interrogative sentence. 

§200. 
Concessive adverbial sentences have the conjunctions ofc 
fdbon, ofcwolj ofc#lcidb, wenn fc&on, wemi $iid), wnn and) (though), 
compounded with the relative adverb 06, tvemi (if), the demon- 
strative adverb fo being expressed or understood in the prin- 
cipal sentence; e.g. o6fd[>OJ1 or oh$Uid) er #efimb iff, fo 
fann er bocfr him 2lnjfren#tm#en ertra$en, though he is in good 
health, he is not able to undergo fatigue; ofcfdfron tX fd)X XCid) 
iff, le&t er fe|)V mafjt#, though he is very rich he is very frugal. 
The conjunctions rcerm fdbon, wenn $leidb, and werm and), are 

commonly separated by the subject of the sentence, or another 
word taking the place of the subject; e. g. JVeun er and), or 

* @o bu ©erecfytigfett ootn £imme( f>off(Tr, fo etjeig' fie tins. Sch. 

<?$ mu#tf gefi^efyn, n>o nibglid), efje fie bir juootfommen. Sch. 
f Sreifren fie bid) 'gegen mid) ju stefjn, fo fagfl Mi 3<i, unb Gfeioft fteljen. Sch. 

0(eid) etnem SErnumen&en, nia ware nut fret S^eiD jugegen. Sch. 


SYNTAX. 247 

wemi er $U\d) $ele(n 4 t ijr, fo ijr er bodb fein fitter Celjrer, though 
he be a learned man, he is not a good teacher. The concessive, 
like the conditional sentences (§ 199), frequently assume the 
form of interrogative sentences, the relative 06 or ttJCttn being 
omitted; e.g. if? er $Uid) ^efttnb, fo farm er bo# feme 5fos 
ffren#iui$en ertra^ert; ifr er au# ^ete^rt, &c* 

In expressions like, it?er er CUtc{) fei, fo fiurdbte id) i(jm tricfct, 
whoever he be, I do not fear him ; wa$ bu and) fa#et1 ma#fr, 
fo anbere id; beef) meine 3)?emtm# ntcjjt, whatever you say, I 
shall not change my opinion ; rote er tie ©a#e an^retfen ma#, 
fo Witb e$ tlid;t #elm#ert, in whatever way he will manage the 
business, he will not succeed ; — the concessive accessory sen- 
tence assumes the form of an indirect question. 

The demonstrative fo, after concessive sentences, is expressed 
only when the principal stands after the accessory sentence ; 
and it is never omitted when the accessory sentence has the 
form of a direct or indirect question. 

§201. 

Adverbial accessory sentences of manner, having the con- 
junction inbem (§ 197), are very frequently employed in Ger- 
man in the place of the English gerund ; e. g. er nafym $l6fc(neb, 

inbem er mir auf'$ freunbltdbjle bte $anb bviicfte, he took leave 

of me, shaking hands with me most kindly ; er fai) i(jtt art, 

inbem er in feinen 23licfen feinen £?erbrug auibmcfte, he looked 
at him, expressing his anger by his looks. 

When manner is expressed in the form of the factitive rela- 
tion (§ 188), the English language makes use of the supine 
(§ 76) with the adverbs so as ,• e. g. he speaks so as to be under- 
stood by everybody ; he acts so as to deserve contempt. In 
German the supine cannot be employed in this manner, and 
is supplied by an accessory sentence with the relative pronoun 
baj?, corresponding to the demonstrative adverb of manner fo 
in the principal sentence; e. g. ev fpvic&t fo, ba$ itytl Jeter* 

mann t»evjM;en farm; er (>anbelt fo, ba$ er 2?eracbtun# w= 
bient. 


* ©tiinut e$ mir g(eid) nicfyt fo frerefct worn Wiiwbt; ftyfngt in fcer 58mft fein minbec 
tmieS £cn. Sch. 


248 SYNTAX. 

Comparative adverbial sentences of manner have the relative 
adverb of manner ttue (as), the demonstrative adverb of manner 
fo, so (Lat. ita), being expressed or understood in the principal 
sentence; e.g. er \ptid)t fo, Wit er benft, he speaks as he thinks; 
er tjaubclt nicbt fo, tt>ie er fprtc&t, he does not act as he speaks. 
When mere possibility is expressed by an adverbial sentence, 
it has the conjunction aU ft?emi, or aU 06 (as if), followed by 
the verb in the conjunctive or conditional mood; e.g. er t(Htt, 
al3 06 cr Uufct)ulbt# fci, he behaves as if he were innocent; et 
jtebt au$ al$ 06 er fm«f Ware, he looks as if he were ill. 
Adverbial sentences of this description may also assume the 
form of interrogative sentences, the conjunctions wetltt and 06 
being omitted ; e. g. aU fci er unfcfjulbig, aU WM er franf. 

§ 202. 

From the comparative sentences of manner we have to 
distinguish the comparative sentences of intensity, of which 
there are different forms in German as in English. 

Intensity may in the first place be expressed, like manner 
(§ 201), in the form of the factitive relation by an accessory 
sentence with fo and bag; e.g. e3 War fo fait, bag Die ffiiifft 
^uftOttn, it was so cold that the rivers were frozen ; er ijr f 

fcfwacfc b a § er rricfjt fprecfren fcmn, he is 50 weak as not to be 
able to speak. 

Equality of intensity is expressed by the relative adverb 
dl§ (as) in the accessory, and by the demonstrative adverb of 
intensity fo, as (Lat. tam\ in the principal sentence; e. g. er 
i(| fo teidb, aU er ttninfdbt £U fein, he is as rich as he wishes 
to be; er tan^t fo oft, aU er £tlft fmt, he dances as often as 
he likes. %\U is in these expressions often omitted ; e. g. er 
tan^t, fo oft (al£) er farm, he dances as often as he can ; fomm, 
fofcalb (aU) bit fantlft come as soon as you can. When the 
accessory is placed before the principal sentence, fo may also 
be used as a relative adverb ; e, g. fo lan$e er reifet, ifr er 
$eflUlb, ccs long as he travels he is in good health *. 

That relation of equal intensity which in English is expressed 
by two comparatives connected with the (the more the better), 


* ©d f;od) er ftrtnb, fo ttef uno frf)mnf)(t^ fci fein 5ntt. Sch. 


SYNTAX. 249 

is rendered in German by je in the accessory, and bejfo in the 
principal sentence ; the former being equivalent to a relative, 
and the latter to a demonstrative adverb; e. g. je ldtt$et id) 

mtt itym Befmmt bin, befto lte6er wivb er mir, the longer I am 

acquainted with him, the more I like him; je tttcf)? Ct tycit, 
beffo mejjr Wilt er, the more he possesses, ^<? more he wishes 
to possess. Instead of befro we sometimes employ also je; 

e. g. je mepr er jmt, je meljr null er |m6en; }e lander, je 

(ieBcr, the longer the better. 

That form of the factitive relation which follows the adverb of 
intensity ^t, too,— e.g. er i|t ^u fdbumdb ^u feiiicr 2?ertljeibi#tmg, 
he is too weak for his defence (§ 183), — being turned in German 
into an accessory sentence, takes the relative adverb of inten- 
sity al$, as (Lat. quam), and the verb stands in the conjunctive 
or conditional mood; e.g. er iff- £U fcfmmcl) aU baj? iX feme 
•2?ert&eibi#un# tKrfucfce or verfudbte, he is too weak to at- 
tempt his defence; er iff ^u c^rlidb aU baj? er etne UnrcabrNt 
fa^en follte, he is too honest to tell a lie. The accessory sen- 
tence of this description may, however, be again abridged into 
a supine, as in English; but then al§ is omitted, and the 
preposition uttt is frequently placed before the supine (§ 184); 

e. g. ^u fc(m>adb feme 2?ettl;>eibi£im# $u vevfudben; ^u reblicb 
um cine Umt>at)rljeit ^u reben. 

After the comparative degree also the relative adverb of 
intensity al$ (Lat. quam) is employed, which corresponds to 

the English than ; e.g. er macfct $rbgeren Slufrocmb, aU er 

lMCfcen follte, he goes to greater expense than he ought to do; 
er ift flitter aU fein SBntber (tfr), he is wiser than his brother 
(is). 

Observation 1 . — In English, as is employed as an adverb of manner (§ 201) : 
in German, manner is commonly expressed by WW (§ 201), and intensity by 
al§ (§ 202). 

Observation 2. — The adverb of intensity Clltf (as, than) is to be distinguished 
from the conjunction al3 standing after a negation. The latter answers 
to the English but ; e.g. Hfcfo f^fre fetnen gefefjfn" al$ bid), I have seen 
none but you; er $Mt nt#t£ a IS 2Bafier gemmfen, he drank nothing 6w£ 
water. 


250 SYNTAX. 


Chapter V. — Of Construction. 

§203. 

Construction, i. e. the proper arrangement of words in a 
sentence, serves, like accentuation (§ 15), to point out the 
unity of the different combinations (§ 15) in a sentence, and 
the subordination of their constituent factors. In accentuation 
this is obtained by the degree of emphasis laid on the words : 
in construction, on the other hand, by the order in which the 
words follow one another. Thus in saying, our friend likes the 
hills of his country, the unity of the combinations our friend, 
friend likes, likes the hills, and the hills of his country, is ex- 
pressed by placing the constituent factors of each combination 
contiguous to each other ; and at the same time the subordina- 
tion of the factors is pointed out by the principal factors in 
each combination following the subordinate factor ; viz. friend 
standing after our, likes after friend, the hills after likes, &c. 
For in arranging the factors of a combination, language in 
general adopts the rule of placing the 'principal after the sub- 
ordinate factor. This rule, however, is modified in each lan- 
guage ; and in German especially it is liable to exceptions, 
which will be explained. 

§ 204. 
We distinguish the constructions of the predicative, attri- 
butive, and objective combinations. In each of these the 
arrangement of the factors depends on their subordination, 
which has been explained in treating of the different combi- 
nations (§ 157, 168, 175). That construction which is in agree- 
ment with the natural subordination of the factors, we term 
the common or direct construction ; e. g. ba§ j?inb tjr Vtvp^W, 
the child is spoiled ; ba$ (?nbe tCV 2Belt, the end of the world ; 
er tvtnft 2#em, he drinks wine. In these combinations, con- 
struction as well as accentuation points out the words VW%0glX1 9 
3SMt, $£dn, as the principal factors. When, on the other 
hand, the speaker wishes to point out emphatically any one 
factor of a combination, not only the accentuation but also 


SYNTAX. 251 

the construction of the combination is changed, and we say, 
t)er$ogen ij? t>a§ £mb, btx ^Bdt gnbe, 3£etn tritift ev; by 
means of which change the words t?et^0$eit, (£nfc>e, WtitU are 
pointed out emphatically. A construction thus altered receives 
the name of an inverted construction. 

In the expressions, t>er3o#en ift ba$ j?mb, 3Bein tritift er, 
the word which is already the principal factor is at the same 
time pointed out emphatically by the inverted construction : 
in fcet $Bdt (gtlbe, on the contrary, the word which usually is 
the subordinate factor (®nbc), is pointed out emphatically, 
and made the principal factor ; consequently the subordina- 
tion of the factors is itself inverted. 

Observation 1. — It is evident that the inverted construction has been 
originally employed for no other purpose than that of emphasis : it has, 
however, come to be frequently used for the sake of perspicuity as well as 
of eury thmy. 

Observation 2. — In general the use of inverted constructions in a language 
is in direct proportion to its power of inflection ; for when the relations of 
words are clearly pointed out by inflection, perspicuity is not impaired by 
inversion ; which must be the case, on the other hand, when the relations 
of words are not expressed by inflection, and are known only by the places 
which they occupy in common construction. The use of the inverted con- 
struction is therefore more extensive in German than in English. Thus, 
e.g. the sentence, ber Sfager Ht eineri 2Bolf getb'btet, the huntsman has 
killed a wolf, in German admits of the inverted construction (ben 2Doff (jflt 
fr f r 3^9^ r getribtet), which in English would entirely change the sense, and 
is therefore not admissible. 


I. Construction of the Predicative Combination. 

% 205. 

The predicative combination consists of two factors, viz. the 
subject and the predicate : the predicate however being fre- 
quently compounded of two words, viz. an adjective or parti- 
cipial form of a verb, and a relational verb (this tree is old, 
the boy has played, the boy may play) ; or, in the case of a 
separable compound verb, of the separable component and 
the inflected verb (the traveller sets out), — we distinguish in 
the construction of the predicative combination three places, 
viz. that of the subject, that of the copula (i. e. the relational 
verb, and the inflected component of separable compound 


252 SYNTAX. 


verbs), and that of the predicate proper, i. e. the predicative 
adjective, the participial forms, and the separable component 
of separable compound verbs ; e. g. — _ 


Subject. 
the flower 
bit SBltttW 

Copula. 
is 
if* 

Predicate. 
beautiful, 
fdbbn. 

you 

tot 

have 

w 

heard, 

the boy 

bit ftxiaht 

can 
fatln 

speak, 
fprec(Kn. 

the stranger 
bit $ti\X\bi 

sets 
reifet 

out, 
ab. 


In order to comprehend all particulars of German construc- 
tion in a few simple rules, we apply the same threefold arrange- 
ment to those predicative combinations also, in which the 
predicate is expressed by a simple verb unconnected with a 
relational verb, and in which consequently the inflected verb, 
like the inflected relational verbs, occupies the place of the 
copula. In this case the place of the predicate is left vacant ; 
but we shall see (§210) that objective factors are, nevertheless, 
always referred to this vacant place of the predicate. Thus, 

Subject. Copida. Predicate. 

the boy speaks, 

bit j?na6e fpricfrt. 

the stranger departs, 

bit gvembe txrreifet. o 

In German the inflected part of the verb alone can take the 
place of the copula : when therefore the relational verb, or a 
separable compound verb, is in a compound form, the inflected 
part takes the place of the copula, and the participial form is 
placed after the predicate ; e. g. — 

Subject. Copula. Predicate. 

bie^Blume if? f#bn #enxfen. 

hi Wit\l s^brt tyahin. 

ba$ £inb ^at fpvecbcn fbnnen. 

bit grembe ift a&= gmifct. 


SYNTAX. 


253 


This construction, however, applies in German only to 
principal sentences: accessory sentences (§ 190) are distin- 
guished by a peculiar form of construction ; and we have to 
treat, therefore, of the construction of the predicative combi- 
nation, 1) in principal sentences, and 2) in accessory sentences. 


1). Construction of Principal Sentences, 

§ 206. 

The construction of principal sentences is either direct or 
inverted {% 204). In the direct construction of principal sen- 
tences, the subject stands first, the copida next, and the predicate 
last. In this respect, therefore, the German does not differ 
from the English construction, except in the arrangement of 
the compound forms of the relational verbs, and of the parti- 
cipial forms of separable compound verbs (§ 205). Thus we 
say,— 


Subject, 

bat ginb 
the child 

Copula, 

if* 
is 

Predicate, 

franf, 

ill. 

bat k'mb 

the child 

i)at 
has 

SefcWafen, 

slept. 

bat £mb 

the child 

fawn 

can 

fyredben, 
speak. 

bat ginb 
the child 

fcMafc 

sleeps. 




ber §rembe 
the stranger 

reifet 
sets 

afc, 

out. 

bat £uib 

(the child 

ifl 
has 

fratif #ett>efen, 
ill been.) 

bat j?inb 
(the child 

ift 
has 

#effraft roorbett, 

punished been.) 

bat £mb 

(the child 

must 

jgejfraft rcerben, 

punished be.) 

ber grembe 
(the stranger 

■ft 
is 

afc^ereifet, 

out set.) 


25 4< SYNTAX. 

§ 207. 

In the inverted construction of principal sentences, the sub- 
ject is placed after the copula : this construction is always 
employed when the subject, or the copula, or the predicate, 
or any objective factor (§ 176), is inverted, i. e. removed from 
its common place in order to be pointed out emphatically 
(§ 204). In English this construction is retained only in 
interrogative sentences (where is the man ?), in imperative 
sentences [speak ye to him), in quotations (yes, said he), in 
some other expressions, e. g. there is a house, never did he 
speak, not a word did lie say ; and particularly in poetical 
language. 

When the subject is rendered emphatic by means of the 
inverted construction, it is placed after the copula, and the 
indefinite pronoun e£ (§ 122) takes its place before the copula; 
e. g. e£ iff ein 2Bolf #efcf>ofTen wovben, a wolf (it was a wolf 

which) was killed; e£ tj? ein J^OttUt erfcfuenen, a comet has 
made its appearance; e$ ^ittettt bit WlllttyiftftMl, the most 
courageous tremble *. 

The copula is inverted and stands before the subject in 
German, as in English, in imperative sentences, and in those 
interrogative sentences in which the assertion itself is the sub- 
ject of the question ; e. g. ©pvecfKH ©ie, speak (ye) ! @ei (bit) 
Ul&ttf, be quiet ; and fcf)laft tX ? does he sleep ? ijt iX ft<mf ■? is 
he illf ? It has been already stated (§ 70, Obs.), that German 
interrogative and imperative sentences do not admit of an 
auxiliary verb like the English to do. When a wish is ex- 
pressed by the auxiliary verb of mood, tttixjen, in the conjunc- 
tive or conditional mood, the inverted construction is also 
employed in German as in English ; e. g. mo$tX\ ©k #UtCfUcf) 
fem ! may you be happy ! mbcfrte IX nod? leBen ! might he be 
still alive ! By inverting the copula, and thus laying a par- 
ticular stress upon it, a particular relation of mood is always 


* &$> (efcen ©otter. Sch. 

GrS jiefyt bte ^reube ein. Sch. 

Gt> finfc fdf)mere SSetbtecfyen G^ngeri worben. Sch. 
f SBift bu ber ©eOieter ? Sch. 

£GWft bu (Frnfl mndjen? Sch. 


SYNTAX. 255 

expressed (§ 70, Obs.). The same construction is employed in 
those cases in which the English idiom makes use of a ques- 
tion in the negative form, in order to assert a fact with unusual 
force. In German the conjunction boc(j is inserted in the 
question, the negative form not being employed ; e. g. Is he 
not your relation? ift Cr bocf) 3f^ 2?CtwanbtCV? did he not 
promise it ? fjrtt er e3 bod) tmfprodben ? * 

When the predicate or any objective factor is rendered em- 
phatic by being inverted, it is placed before the copula, which 
in that case is followed by the subject; e. g. fTitdbtig if? bii %tit 9 
time is fleeting ; em $eucj)ler if? er, he is a hypocrite ; ^efiuibt^t 
i)at CV, tmb ^ejrmft mug CV iVCVben, he has sinned, and he must be 
punished f ; and H>ein ^at er fiicf)t #etmnf en, wine he did not 
drink ; ©cfcmetcMem tratte id) lltdbt, flatterers I do not trust ; 

nadj) Conbon reifet er, to London he goes ; 6ei Xa#e fdblaft er, 

UXib 9?ad)t$ ar6ettet er, in the day-time he sleeps, and in the 
night-time he works; tapfet i)at er #efbc|)ten, bravely he 
fought J. 

Whatever part of the principal sentence be inverted, the 
relative position of the subject and of the copula always 
remains the same, as will be seen from the following : 

Inverted: Copula. Subject. Predicate. 

Subject. & ifr em hornet erfcfriewn. 

Copula. tfr er franf? 

Predicate. gUic()tt# iff bk gcit. 

Objective factor. 2£ein l;at er ^etrtmfen. 

Of all objective factors (§ 176), adverbs are most frequently 
rendered emphatic by inversion in German, as they frequently 
are also in English ; e. g. £ter ftd)t er, here he stands; je$t 

* 3ft Sefcen t>od> be$ Se&enS tyadjfteS @ut ! Sch. 

SEBnt't ifjr bod) fonft fo frofj ! Sch. 

&enn id) fie bod) faum ! ScA. 

4?nt bie ^bntgin bod) nid)t$ t>ocnu$ uot bem gemeinen 5Bucgenvei6e ! Sch. 
i (Jtnft ift bflS 2e6en, f)eiter ift bie ftunft. *SW*. 

Setjireut finb bie ©efafjrten. fifcA. 

©tetfcen miiffen <\Ue. Sch. 
t 2)ie ©prndje tebet Grng(nnb$ Seinb. £c£. 

3tt<ma ©tunrt fjrtt fein 0(ucf(id)et fcefdjii^t. ScA. 

SBiele rt(te Sffirtvpcnfeudjer fdjfug id) nad). ScA. 

9fuc uon (?bten fann ba$ (?b(e ftnmmen. tfcA. 

4>ier ift ©eiurtlt, brinnen ift ber $Kor&. Sta. 


256 SYNTAX. 

fommt er, now he comes; vidU\d)t fennt er tttidb, perhaps he 
knows me. The conjunctional adverbs, e. g. bennodb, jebocfe, 
^nw, mbeffen, ^leidbrool, bal;er, bemnacfr, fol^lidb (§ 153), are in 
point of construction treated like other adverbs; and when 
they stand at the beginning of the sentence, the subject always 
takes its place after the copula; e. g. $wax tft er reicf), jebocfr 
ifl er nidbt geadbtet, batyzx ift er mifjtoercnwgt, he is rich indeed, 
but still he is not respected, he therefore is not happy. The 
co-ordinative conjunctions proper (unb, ober, atlem, fonbeM, 
and benn), on the other hand, though always standing at the 
beginning of the sentence, do not affect the position of the 

subject; e.g. allein er nurb nicbt geadbtet, fonbern er if? 
t>eracf)tet, but he is not respected, but despised; benn er iff: 
#etttem, for he is vulgar. The conjunctions attdf) 5 alfa, a&er, 
namltdb? and enttveber, may, like conjunctional adverbs, stand 
at the beginning of the sentence as well as before the predi- 
cate : and) and alfo, if thus placed at the beginning, also affect 
the position of the subject; but after and iianilidb have not the 
same effect; e.g. er t;at feme ©telle, audi) i)at er fein 2?ermb3en 
attetn er £at #uten WMfy, namlicb er {>at $ut3jidbten auf eine 

teicfee (S?6fdbaft, he has no place, nor has he any fortune, 
therefore he is not very happy, but he is of good cheer, for he 
has expectations of a rich inheritance. After entnxber, stand- 
ing at the beginning of the sentence, the subject may be placed 
either before or after the copula; e. g. entfteber er fbmmt, or 
entwber fommt er 311 mtr, ober tdb $el}e %n ifym, either he comes 
to me or I shall go to him. It is to be observed, however, 
that when an adverb of quantity, e. g. aucfr, niir, faum, nodb, 
focjar, fcf)0H (§ 138), stands not in an objective relation to the 
predicate, but in an attributive relation to the subject, its 
being placed at the beginning of the sentence does not affect 
the position of the subject. We say accordingly, and) or nur 
ber ^ntbcr Wax ba, the brother too, or the brother alone, was 
there; but and) Yoax ber 2?ruber ba, the brother was also there; 
faum Cine (5ttmbe War V er#an#en, an hour had scarcely elapsed ; 
and faum War eine (5tunbe tfer#an$en, scarcely had an hour 

elapsed ; fcfron brei finb #ej?or&en, nodb eincr ift nbxi$, already 
three of them are dead, only one is left ; and fdbon finb bret #e= 
ff or&en unb nodb einev ift franf, already three of them are dead, 


SYNTAX. 257 

and still one is sick. Some adverbs, as ftcilidb, bod), jtebocfr, 
mbcfjen, mm, Wafytiid), may be employed in an elliptical way, 
in the place of a whole sentence ; in which case they do not, 
as usually, affect the construction of the following sentence ; 
e.g. fmUcf), or watyxlid), ef tjr feljr alt, to be sure he is very 

old; bodb, or jebodb, or inbeffen, tdb will e$ ii6erle#en, how- 
ever, I shall reflect upon it. 

In the inverted construction of the principal sentence, the 
subject commonly stands immediately after the copula. When, 
however, the subject is to be emphatically pointed out, it may 
be placed after one or more objective factors, according to its 
importance compared with that of these factors; e.g. (£$ ijr VOV 
bni Xa#en in unfrer Stodb&arfc&aft etn 2Bclf gefdbojfeti nwrben, 

a wolf was killed in our neighbourhood three days ago. 
The subject, if pointed out emphatically, admits of being thus 
placed behind an objective factor in accessory sentences also, 
which otherwise do not admit of the inverted construction ; 
e.g. ba vox bret Zagm in unfver 9?adb6avfdjaft etn !H>otf ^e= 
fdboffcn WOVben t|r. We cannot in German place at the begin- 
ning of the sentence two or more objective factors at the same 
time, as is frequently done in English ; e. g. In general however 
it is true, im $lUqemetmn t|r e$ jebocf) UW ; In his excuse indeed 
it may be said, ^u femcr (gntfdbalbt^ung f ami fivat flefaqt werben. 

2.) Construction of Accessory Sentences. 

§208. 
Accessory sentences are in German distinguished from prin- 
cipal sentences by a peculiar form of construction. The subject 
stands first, being preceded by the conjunction, which serves 
to connect the accessory with the principal sentence (except 
when the subject itself, being a relative pronoun, performs the 
office of a conjunction); the predicate takes the second, and the 
copula the last place (§ 190). This construction accordingly 
is adopted by all sentences connected with a principal sentence 
by means of subordinative conjunctions, i. e. relative pronouns, 
or relative adverbs expressed or understood, or conjunctions 
equivalent to relative pronouns, e. g. 06, e£e, feit, b\$, Weil, &c. 
(§ 192.) Thus, 


258 


SYNTAX. 



Gin £inb, 
(a child 


Subject. 

weldM 

which 

Predicate, 

franr' 
ill 

Copula, 

m 

is.) 

(gin ftinb, 
(a child 

bcflen 
whose 

better 

father 

Franf 
ill 

ft 

is.) 

(gin j?inb 
a child 


which 


fcWaft. 
sleeps. 

3$ mi§ 

(I know 

that 

bag Sinb 

the child 

^cfdblafen 

slept 

has.) 


SOemt 
(when 

ba$ £inb 
the child 

fptedben 
speak 

fann, 
can.) 


(before 

bev Stcmbe 

the stranger 

ah 
out 

reifet, 
sets.) 


WO, 

(because 

ba$ ginb 

the child 

fvanf#enxfen 
ill been 

iff, 
has.) 


Stac&bem 
(after 

ber $rembe 

the stranger 

a6#emfet 
set out 

war, 
had.) 


2>a 
(as 

ba£ £inb 

the child 

geftraft tverben mug, 
punished be must.) 


When the relative adverbs of intensity, fo, Wie, and je ($ 202), 
are connected with an adjective or other adverb, it follows them 
immediately, and is accordingly placed before the subject, as 
in English; e. g. fo or wit Hu$ er and) fet, however prudent 
he be; fo oft tc{) $n fe&e, as often as I see him; je grbjjer 
Cf tjl, the greater he is. 

When in an accessory sentence a relational verb, or another 
verb connected with an infinitive or a supine, stands in a com- 
pound tense, eurythmy commonly requires the inflected rela- 
tional verb to be placed before the predicate (§ 17) ; e. g. tvcnn 
id) ba$ ftatte wrfynbern fbnnen, if I might have prevented 
that; nacbbem id) tfnt |)atte fommen (jbren, a ft er I had heard 

him coming *. For the same purpose the verbs fcin and l)a6en, 


ftnnn id) uergeffen n>ie'$ f> ci 1 1 c fommen tinmen ? Sch. 

55n$ bit mir funftig mngft $u tjinter&ringen (ja&en, fprid) e$ nie mit ©n(6en 
au$. Sch. 


SYNTAX. 259 

if used as auxiliary verbs, are sometimes altogether omitted in 
accessory sentences ; e. g. wmn id) tyttt emeil quttn OfatJ) Qi- 
#e6en (lja6e), if I have given him good advice; Weil et oft 
fpa^ieten #e#an$en (tjl) ? because he has often taken a walk *. 

II. Construction of the Attributive Combination* 

\ 209. 
In the attributive combination the attributive substantives 
commonly follow the substantive referred to, as in English ; 
e. g. ber @C^n be3 £bttt#$, the son of the king; bcr ftuif 
ber (Sonne, the course of the sun; em Wlauw von (?ljre, a 
man of honour; em 9?in# t>0n ©olbe, a ring of gold; mein 
2?ettCt ill £onbon, my cousin in London. Attributive adjec- 
tives, on the other hand, generally precede the substantive 
referred to, even though they be enlarged into an objective 
combination; e. g. mein 2?ater, my father; em attt§ $aa$, 

an old house; ber an meiuen s 2?atcr ^efdbticBene Sfrief, the 
letter written to my father ; bet am bie (?r$ie&iui# fetucr j?inbet 
6efot$te 2?rttet, the father anxious for the education of his 
children. An adjective or participle is placed after the sub- 
stantive referred to, only when it is the predicate of an abridged 
adjective-sentence (§194-), and therefore not inflected ; e.g. ber 
2?atet, fceforgt am bie ©#e&im# fetnet j?tnbet, instead of ber 
6efor#ttjt; bet ^t, ben Xob feme£ j?tanfen Befiitcbtenb, the 
physician fearing the death of his patient f. It has been already 
stated (§ 194?), that such expressions are admissible only when 
the substantive referred to is in the nominative or accusative 
case. 

The attributive combination, having for its attributive factor 
a substantive in the genitive case, may be inverted by placing 
the substantive referred to after the genitive case : by this 
means the substantive referred to is emphatically pointed out; 


* Srf) uettot nicfyt aUe£>, ba fofefyet 5«unb im Ungltitf mir gebHe&en (tfT). Sch. 
sjftir tnm bie ftunbe ju, b<i£ il)t nmttem Dfyeim u6erge6en nwben (want). Sch. 
3Bn$ rent mein 2)nnf bafiir, bc$ id) bet SSotfet $tud) nuf mid) ge&iitbet tynttt), bicfeti 
ftticg, bet nut ifm gto£ gemad)t (fjatte), bie Siirften jafjlen (nffen (fjntte) ? ScA. 
f Grine fyeU'ge Grid)e ftefyt baneben, butd) meter SfBunber ©egenSftnft 6etiif)mt. 5c/?. 
£etf ffingt Don often Styurmen b<i$ ©elaut, beS frteitgen SngeS frotje S3efpet f(^(n= 
g e n b. (Sc/t. 

s 2 


260 SYNTAX. 

e.g. 6ei; £ft#e$ 5hl6vudb, at the break of day; be$ %a$t$ 
Bftfi Uttb ^rBeit, the labour and toil of the day; bet 2£dt 
(?nbe, the end of the world; be? Cail&eS 2£o|)lfa{m, the 
welfare of the country*. In this position the substantive 
referred to commonly receives the principal accent, which is 
otherwise laid upon the attributive genitive (§ 168) f. When 
the attributive adjective is to be pointed out emphatically, it 
is either turned into an adjective-sentence, and placed after 
the substantive referred to, or it is used substantively, and 
also, by way of apposition, placed after the substantive referred 
to ; e. g. em Silver, ber 6Unb i)r, instead of tin fclmber gitfjver, 
a blind guide; and bit Gutter, bte fotcjfame, instead of btC 
for^fame Gutter, the careful mother (§ 171). 

Observation. — %{{t in, alone; fe^jT, self; and $enu$, enough; commonly 
stand after the substantive or pronoun referred to, as in English ; e. g. ®Ctt 
a He in, God alone; bet 2?atet fe 1 6 ft, the father himself ; @el5 aettUvj, 
money enough. In the same way alle, all, stands frequently after the sub- 
stantive referred to ; e.g. i# fcafce bie 2?U#er a He c$e(e fen, I have read 
the whole of the books. 


III. Construction of the Objective Combination. 

§210. 

In the objective combination the objective factor stands 
before the predicate, or, if the place of the predicate has 
been left vacant, before that vacant place (§ 205). Thus we 
say in the direct construction of the principal sentence : — 

Subject. Copula. Objective. Predicate. 

dt ift fetnent $mmbe treu, 

(he is to his friend faithful.) 

<Sx &at Rafter gctrunfen, 

(he has water drunk.) 


* 2>e6 2eben$ 2(en g fte— er roirft fie n>eg. Sch. 
Sljr nennt eud) fremb in (?ng(mibs 5?eirf)5gefe^en ; in (JngfanbS Ungfiicf feit 
if)r tupf>( 6ewnnbert. Sch. 
f SSon eud) ertrng id) i>ie( ; id) eljre cuet Srtter ; ben itebermutf) beS Sting HngS 
ttflg id) nid)t; fpntt mit ben 2Infr(i<f feiner raufjen ©itten. <SfcA. 


SYNTAX. 


261 


Subject. 

<?r 

he 


gr 
he 


Copula. 

fcfcreifct 
copies 

fdbtci6t 

writes 


Objective. 

emen $rtef, 
a letter. 

etnen 2Mef, 
a letter. 


Predicate. 
ah 9 






In the inverted construction of the principal sentence : — 


Sftemcu^ 
(never 

3cgt 

(now 

2?ielletdbt 
(perhaps 

XtCU 
(faithful 


Copula, 

3ft 

(is 

jwt 

has 

fc&reifct 
copies 

fdbret6t 
writes 

if* 

is 


Subject. 

er 

he 

er 
he 

cr 
he 

er 
he 

er 
he 


Objective. 

feinem greunbe 
to his friend 

Staffer 

water 

einen 2?rief 
a letter.) 

einen 2Mef, 
a letter.) 

feinem greunbe, 
to his friend.) 


Predicate. 
treu? 
faithful ?) 

SetrunFen, 
drunk.) 

ah, 
o 








And in the construction of accessory sentences : — 


Subject. 


Senn 
(if 

Sell 

(because 

(that 

Dh 
(whether 


cr 

he 

er 
he 

er 
he 

er 
he 


Objective. 

feinem greunbe 
to his friend 

Gaffer 
water 

ben 2?rief 

the letter 

ben 2Mef 
the letter 


Predicate. 

trett 

faithful 

.getrunfen 
drunk 

ah 
o 

o 




Copula. 

ft 

is.) 

(fofc 

has.) 

fcfrrei&t, 
copies.) 

fcfcrei6t, 
writes.) 


When there are two or more objective factors in different 
relations to the same predicate, they are arranged according 
to their degrees of subordination. This subordination in gene- 
ral depends on the greater or less importance of the different 
factors, resulting both from the signification of the words by 
themselves, and from the different kinds of objective relation 


262 SYNTAX. 

in which they stand to the predicate. Thus it may in general 
be remarked, that a relational word is in general subordinate 
to a notional word, a factor in the relation of place and time 
to one in the relation of causality, an accidental to a supple- 
mentary factor (§ 177), a factor in the relation of person to 
one in the relation of a thing, &c. This subordination is, 
moreover, always expressed by a subordination of accentua- 
tion ; the principal objective factor consequently, — i. e. that 
objective factor which is of the greatest importance in the 
objective combination, and (the predicate being the principal 
constituent of the sentence) in the whole sentence also, — has 
the principal accent in the objective combination, and in the 
whole sentence ; whilst the subordinate factors are also sub- 
ordinate in point of accentuation to the principal factor and to 
each other. 

In general the principal objective factor immediately pre- 
cedes the predicative factor, and the subordinate factor precedes 
the principal, or that other factor to which it is subordinate. 
Notional words in particular stand after relational words; e. g. 

id) l;a6e ifyxi in bcr ©tabt #efe^en, I have seen him in town ; er 
Wixb balb in bit ©tobt $id)tm he soon will remove to town. 
The relation of causality stands after the relations of place 
and time ; e. g. er fiat in bet &abt einett $veimb angetvoffen, 
he has met a friend in town ; et tyat VOX btCt Xct#en eilien fBvilf 
evfyaltert, he received a letter three days ago : the supple- 
mentary factor follows that which is not supplementary ; e. g. 
ev f)at dl\$ ©d^ Gaffer #etrtmfen, he has drunk water from 

avarice; er fwt ^u feinem Steigftttgen em $ferb gcfaaft, he has 
bought a horse for his pleasure : the case expressive of a 
thing after the case expressive of a person ; e. g. CX &at bcm 
^naBcn ein $8l\d) gefcbenft, he has given a book to the boy ; ev 

i)at ben Dudbtev bcr SJar$ei;iWett 6efc|mlbt#t, he has accused 

the judge of partiality: the relation of place after that of 
time ; e. g. er ift vox bm Xaqen iv\ ber ©tabt awjefommen, he 
arrived in town three days ago : adverbs of manner commonly 
precede the supplementary objective factor, but follow all other 

objective factors ; e. g. 5$ Ijafce bem gvemben fveunbUd) bit 

•fjanb #ebvitcft, I have kindly shaken hands with the stranger; 
CV i)at Xtbiici) bk %8al)xl)tit QtfdQt, he has honestly told me 


SYNTAX. 263 

the truth. The position of adverbs of manner, however, de- 
pends in particular on their modifying either the notion of the 
verb exclusively, or that of the verb taken together with one 
or more other factors ; and it is accordingly placed either 
immediately before the predicate, or before the factor con- 
stituent of the modified notion. Thus we say on the one 
hand, cr \)at bte ©adbe 6effev t>er)?anben, he has better under- 
stood the business; id) l;a6e ben CSc^cnffanb aufmerffamev 
6etfrtdf)tCt, I have more attentively considered the subject ; ei' 

i)at fern @litc£ mit D)?ag t#uit# ^enoffen, he has enjoyed his 

good fortune with moderation : and on the other hand, cr ijl 

I a 113 fa m butdb bte Stabt #e$an$eii, he slowly walked through 
the town; cr I) at utt v giiicfUdber Sfiktfe bte ©adbe mcfrt w 

fjanbcilj he unfortunately did not understand the business; id) 
i)abt aBfidbtlicf) bte ©adje Htci)t imterfltdbt, I have intention- 
ally not investigated the matter; cr i)at la lit ail bte Xi)ilV 
$rflopft 9 he gave a loud knock at the door; et tyat feljt mafc 
fig Wlitt getUtnfen, he took wine very moderately. 

A verb sometimes assumes a new signification, in conse- 
quence of a supplementary objective factor ([| 177) being joined 
to it. In the following phrases, — (ftneil fitV Ctnen &Ctt%CV 
^alten or ailfeljen, to take one to be an impostor; ©mil film 
Settler ntadben, to make one a beggar ; (giiten Ctt^en flvafen, to 

give one the lie; @efa^V lattfeil, to run a risk; (gtwtlt (Seizor 
qcBeil, to give one a hearing; and some others,^ — this objective 
factor cannot be subordinated to any other factor, even by way 
of inversion. The same applies to all compound expressions 
for simple notions; e. g. ^u .ptilfe fommen, to assist; am diati) 
fva.qen, to ask advice (consult) ; £tt ©Vitnbe ^etjeil, to perish; 
p ©rtmbe rtcbten, to ruin; in'3 Wttf fegen, to execute; $u 
©tanbc 6mi#en, to fulfil; im 3^ uwe l)altt\1, to restrain; ffrU 
fM;en, to stop; fejl l;alten, to take hold of, &c. (§ 175); which, 
in point of construction, may be considered as separable com- 
pound verbs, because the objective factor, like a separable 
component, takes the place of the predicate, whilst the verb 
either takes the place of the copula, or stands behind the 
objective factor, which has the place of the predicate, accord- 
ing as it is either inflected or in a participial form (§ 205) ; 
e.g. cr vidbtet feinen $vuber ^u ©viuibc, and cv I) at feinen 


264 SYNTAX. 

2?ruber ^u ©runbe #eric&tet; er fxa$t feinen greunb urn 
9?atl;, and cr will feinen greunb urn IKat^ fra$en. 

When two or more relational words are in an objective 
relation to the same verb, pronouns are placed before other 
kinds of relational words ; e.g. id) l)Clbl ifytl #efiem #efe()n, 
I saw him yesterday; er tturb ttlidb 6 alb fcfudjen, he will 
soon visit me. Of pronouns, again, the personal pronoun 
stands before the demonstrative, and e$ generally precedes all 
other pronouns; e. g. er \)0X nlir ba$ er^a^lt, he told me 
that; er tyat il)X\ bort gefel^en, he has seen him there; er fya\ 
e$ itym er^afylt, he has told it to him. Of personal pronouns, 
the one in the accusative is commonly placed before that in 
the dative case ; e. g. id; Mxbt bid) i\)m twrfMlen, I shall in- 
troduce you to him. The reflexive pronoun precedes all other 
pronouns, and frequently even e£; e. g. er fdbatttt fi db beiner, 
he is ashamed of you ; id) erinnere mid) feiner, I remember 
him ; er lagt ficf)'$ ^efallen, he submits to it. In the inverted 
construction of the principal sentence (§ 207), the personal, 
and especially the reflexive pronoun, stands before the sub- 
ject, except when the subject is also expressed by a personal 
pronoun. We say, ba fra#te mid) tttein ^reunb, then my friend 
asked me; e$ freuen fief) bk j?inber, the children rejoice : but 
on the other hand, ba fmqte er mid); 3e$t freuen fie ftefc. The 
same applies to the construction of accessory sentences ; e. g. 
nxnn btcfj ber 23rttber fra^t; rcenn ficb bie itinber freuen. 

The relational adverbs of mood, md)t, ja, bod), pvat, etn?a, 
U>ol, t>ielleidbt, $m\ (§ 138), are placed immediately before the 
predicate (or its vacant place), when the relation of mood 
expressed by them (§ 8) applies to the notion of the verb ; 

e. g. er Imt itym ba$ $ferb ntcfjt or ja or tnelleicfjt ^efdbenft, 
and er fc&cnft ii)m ba$ *pferb nidbt or ja or tnelleidbt, he has 

not (indeed, perhaps) given him the horse, &c. ; id) l)dttt ifym 
tie 9?acbricbt gem rjerfefrane^en, I should have liked to conceal 
the intelligence from him. But when the relation of mood 
applies to one of the other factors, the adverb stands imme- 
diately before the factor referred to; e. g. ei' t)at nidjt or ja 
or vielleidbt il;m ba$ ^Jferb qefcbenft, it is not (indeed, per- 
haps) to him that he has given the horse; er J)at ii)m nid)t or 
ja or tnelleid;t ein ^ferb $efd;cnft, he has not (indeed, 


SYNTAX. 265 

perhaps) given a horse to him; id) tyatte #evtl itym or id) 
Ijatte ii)m #ew btefe $lad)tid)X wfcfwtegen, from him I 
should have liked to conceal this intelligence, or, I should 
have liked to conceal this intelligence from him. When how- 
ever the relation of mood applies indefinitely to the whole of 
the predicate, the adverb of mood is commonly placed after 
personal pronouns, but before all other objective factors ; e. g. 

er t)at $m tnelletdbt or wol or %wat em $ferb $efdbenft; er 
tyat tneltetdbt or wol or $wat fetnem ©o^m em $ferb #e= 
fdbenft. 

The relational adverbs of time, fcfron and riodf) (§ 138), if 
referred to other adverbs of time or adverbial expressions, 
may be placed either before or after them; e. g. fcf)0tl petite 
and Ijeute fc() on, not later than today; nodb tyettte and rjeute 
nodbs this very day. The same applies to fo#ar referred to any 
other word; e.g. fo#ar ber 2?ater, and bet 2?ater fo#ar, even 
the father. The adversative conjunctions, after, jebodj), and 
inbefTen, also are frequently placed immediately after the word 
to which they more particularly refer ; e. g. ber ©Opn fd[)ttue#, 
ber 2?ater after (jebocf)) fpracfr, the son was silent, but the father 
spoke. 

Observation.— In the arrangement of the objective combination, the 
German differs materially from the English construction. In German the 
objective always stands before the predicative factor, whilst in English the 
reverse is generally the case. The German arrangement of two or more 
objective factors also in the same sentence is almost the reverse of that 
received in English ; the principal objective factor always standing after 
the subordinate, whilst in English the principal generally precedes the sub- 
ordinate factor, except in the case of personal pronouns and of some other 
relational words. 

In English, moreover, adverbs are very generally placed between the 
subject and copula j e. g. he constantly alarmed us, we carefully avoided him. 
In German such adverbs either take their place before the predicate, or they 
are put at the head of the sentence, which in consequence is inverted. 

§211. 

The construction of the objective combination is inverted in 
three different ways. 

The predicate, which commonly is the subordinate factor 
in the objective combination (§ 175), may be pointed out 


QS6 SYNTAX. 

emphatically, so as to assume the importance of the principal 
factor; and then, if standing in a principal sentence, it is 
commonly placed at the head of the sentence; e.g. ©efctift 
(jat CV feme XtjorlKit, he has atoned for his folly * (§ 207). 

The objective factor, or when there are two or more such 
the principal of them, though it is already the principal factor 
of the combination, may be pointed out still more emphatically, 
either by being placed also at the head of the sentence, in 
principal sentences, e.g. fdnen d#nen ©oljm fmt ev bent 

(BendbtC u6er$e6en, he has surrendered his own son to judge- 
ment (§ 207) ; or, on the contrary, by being thrown at the 
end of the sentence, i. e. behind the predicate in a principal, 
and behind the copula in an accessory sentence ; e. g. CV pat 
t»er#efjevi altc fctnc Ccibcn, he has forgotten all his sufferings ; 
mtcbbent et lan^e flefdbmacbtet patte in Wlajngd unb 9?ot(j, 

after he had languished a long time in want and suffering f . 

When a subordinate objective factor is to be pointed out 
emphatically, it takes the place of the principal objective factor 
immediately before the predicate ; e. g. ct fjat Vid (Mb of)lK 
Vitt 3)?ul)e CfK>OV6en 5 he has made much money, and that 
without much trouble; er Bcfucbt ba$ X&eater jeben $l6enb, 
every evening he goes to the theatre ; icj) IjaBe Ct&jtdbtftdb bit 
9?adbric|)t tl;m tmfdbwiegen, I have intentionally concealed the 
news from him. 

The subordinate factor may be pointed out still more em- 
phatically by being placed, like the principal objective factor, 
either at the head of the sentence, or after the predicate, or in 
accessory sentences after the copula. 

An objective factor belonging to an attributive adjective or 
participle stands before that adjective or participle; e. g. bet 
auf feine @te#e |M$e Jlrtecjer, the warrior proud of his 
victories; bd$ in btet ©cfclacfcte tl Qtftblafttm -Seer, the army 
defeated in three battles. When, however, the attributive 
adjective or participle in the form of an abridged adjective- 

* 5Beiftei)en fofien fie mlr in mcinen tyianen. Sch. 

f 3d) fjnfce ftt(( gefd)n>iegen 511 ntien fd> ro ere n Zfyattn. Sch. 

3d) fjafce (tinge gef;offt <ui f biefen %a$. Sch. 

2)n(j fid) £erj unb 3Ju<je i»eit>e, n n b e ni \x> i) 1 a e i u n g e n e n 23 i ( b. &.V*. 

Cfs frette fid), n>er Dn titfytnet ttn rofigen 2td)t unb begefjre uimmer }u fdjnueit. 
n>ns> Me ©otter i'cbecfen m i t ^in d) t unb tyinutn. Sch. 


SYNTAX. 267 

sentence stands after the substantive referred to (^ 194), the 
objective factor may be placed also after the adjective or par- 
ticiple, by which means it is pointed out emphatically ; e. g. 
ber tfwfler jM^ auf fetne ©ie#e, ba$ .£eer, #efc|)la#en in 
brei ©cfclacrjten. 

IV. Construction of Compound Sentences. 

§ 212. 

All accessory sentences standing in places and having the 
power of factors in a principal sentence (§ 190), ought in 
general to occupy the places of those factors in the principal 
sentence for which they stand ; viz. substantive-sentences that 
of the subject or objective factor, adjective-sentences that of 
the attributive factor, and adverbial sentences that of the 
adverb. Perspicuity as well as eurythmy, however, frequently 
require another position of accessory sentences, the particulars 
of which will appear from the following observations. 

Substantive-sentences expressing the subject of the principal 
sentence (§ 191, 193) frequently retain in German the place 
of the subject at the head of the principal sentence ; e. g. ka$ 

cr r)eute fcbon anfommen werbe, i(r iiicfct wa&rfcfcemlidb, it is not 
probable that he will arrive today; ba$ er feiwil §e[jlef evfemit, 
ifr fc^r QUt, it is very well that he acknowledges his fault. 
Substantive-sentences of this description, however, may also 
stand after the principal sentence ; in which case the indefinite 
pronoun e$ occupies the place of the subject, as in English; 
e.g. e£ ifr nidfjt wa&rfc&cinlicfj, ba$ cr tjeute, &c. ; e3 ifr fet)f 

#Ut, ba§ er, &c. The latter position is more common, and 
always preferred when an emphasis is laid on the substantive- 
sentence. 

Substantive-sentences in the relation of causality may (§ 191 ) 
in the same way either occupy the place of the objective factor 
for which they stand, or be placed after the principal sentence; 
e. g. kb bin bartiber, ba$ er #emfen ifr, febr frol), or, id) bin bar- 
iiOer \d)V frofcf, ba$ cr flenefen ifr, I am very happy at his being 
recovered. When, however, the demonstrative pronoun (e. g. 
bavttOcr) is not expressed in the connexion of the accessory 
sentence, the relative bag thus standing alone, the accessory 


268 SYNTAX. 

is commonly placed after the principal sentence ; e. g. id) fcttt 
fdjr ftct), bag er ^enefen tfr. When the demonstrative pronoun 
is expressed, and the accessory nevertheless follows after the 
principal sentence, the demonstrative pronoun retains the 
place in the principal sentence, otherwise occupied by the 
accessory sentence; e. g. er fjiftt feiWttt greitnbe babltrcfr QtQgm 

&d)abtn #et(*an, bag er jidb in feme ^elegen^eiten $emifcf)t 

£at, he has done great injury to his friend by interfering in 
his affairs. 

Substantive- sentences in an attributive relation are com- 
monly placed immediately after the substantive referred to ; 

e. g. id) tyaU bit .goffnung, bag er it>iebet #ettefen roerbe, 
fdbon VOt fiVti Wlonatin attf#e#e6en, I have some months ago 
given up the hope of his recovery. When however the sub- 
stantive referred to is the principal objective factor, and there- 
fore immediately precedes the predicate, the accessory may 
be made to follow the principal sentence; e. g. id) Jjafce fd)0n 
vox fivti Wlmatm bit .gojfnun# aufaegeben, bag er, &c 

A substantive-sentence in an objective relation may, like a 
simple objective factor, be placed at the head of the principal 
sentence by way of inversion (§211); in consequence of which 
the subject of the principal sentence is also placed after the 
copula; e.g. bag er ftanf fet #lau6e id) nid)U his illness I 
do not believe. The connecting demonstrative pronoun in 
that case commonly stands before the substantive-sentence ; 
e. g. bat? on, bag er VtWtfcn Will, Wig id) nic()t3, of his intend- 
ing to travel I know nothing : it may however also stand after 
the substantive-sentence ; e.g. bag er WVeifen Will, bat) OH 
mig tdb ntcf)^. 

Supines are, in the construction of the sentence, consider- 
ed as abridged substantive-sentences (§ 190) : all particulars 
accordingly observed on the position of substantive-sentences 
also apply to supines. Thus we say, er f?at, Uttl belt .gottter 

lefen ^u fbnnen, ©riedjifdb adernt, or, er l;at ©rtedbifcfr #dernt urn 
ben .gomer lefen $u fbmten, or lastly, urn bin .Qomer lefen 311 

fbnnen tyat er ©riedbtfdb gelemt, he has learned Greek in order 

to be able to read Homer ; er l;at bie (Megenljeit wit bent Slr^te 
$u fpredben verfel;lt, and er l;at bit ©ele#enljeit t>erfel;lt mit bent 
5lr$te $u fprecfren, he has missed the opportunity of speaking to 


SYNTAX. 269 

the physician. The more common practice, however, is to 
place the supine at the end of the principal sentence; and 
this position is preferred especially when one or more objective 
factors are referred to the supine ; e. g. Weil ev fidb #ewci$evt 
fcat, ^uv cjefjbvtgen 3^it fetne @c{utlb ab^utva^en, iff ev 
gqwuqgett worsen, ficfr baviifcev t»ov tern ©evtdjte ^u get* 

antWOVten, because he has refused to pay his debt at the 
proper time, he has been forced to justify himself before the 
court. 

Adjective-sentences commonly stand after the substantive 
referred to, as in English. Those adjective-sentences, how- 
ever, which refer to an objective factor immediately preceding 
the predicate, are placed behind the whole principal sentence, 
when they are of great extent, or have a peculiar emphasis 

laid upon them ; e. g. id) fja&e vox bxti Xa#en ben Sretttben $e- 
fejmt bet* unl vot bvet 3afjveti auf bent £anbe fcefttcfct 
j)at, I three days ago saw the stranger, who visited us in 
the country three years ago. This position of the adjective- 
sentence is absolutely necessary, when the predicate of the 
principal sentence is subordinate in point of accentuation to 
the principal factors of both the adjective and the principal 
sentence. We could not say, for instance, ev #ef)t etttetl 2?evtvag, 
ten ev nidbt fatten fann, ein, he makes a treaty which he 

cannot keep; et fteijt mit $ewtmbevtma. ben $)?amt, bev fo 
tuele$#et(jan ^ at, an, he looks with admiration at the man 
who has done so much. 

Adverbial sentences may be placed either before the predi- 
cate, like the adverbial expression for which they stand, or 
after the principal sentence ; e. g. et fjat miv, nacjjbem ev bd$ 
©elb ^e^a^lt £atte, einen (gmpfanqfdfmn 3e$e6en, having 
counted the money he gave me a receipt; id) Will, Wenn 
bit e$ tfevlancjft, |nev Bleifcen, if you desire it I shall stay 
here; er will, wetl ev franf iff, ZB'dfox ^eBrauc^en, being ill 
he wishes to bathe; and, er feat mtr einen gnipfan#fdf>em #e$e- 
6en nadbbem er, &c; id) will £ier 6lei6en, wenn bit, &c; ev 
Will SS'dbtX #e6vaud)en Weil ev, &c. It is more usual, however, 
to place the adverbial before the principal sentence by way of 
inversion, in which construction the subject of the principal 


270 SYNTAX. 

sentence is always placed after the copula ; e. g. nadbbettt er brt3 
<$db gq'di)lt l;atte, gab cv nttv cmen (fmpfanqfdbein ; m\m hi 
t» wrlan^ff, tx>tU tcb fclci&en; mil er fratrf i(r, #e6vauc{)t ev 

Observation. — It has been stated (§ 210, Obs.) that adverbs cannot in 
German, as in English, be placed between the subject and copula. This 
remark applies to adverbial sentences also, which in English frequently 
occupy the same place ; e. g. My father, being very tired, sat down ; my 
brother, all the arrangements being made, set off. 


I N D E X. 


%b §144 

Wbtv 155 

%bexmali 138 

Ablative relation 178 

its different kinds, ex- 
pressed by different preposi- 
tions 181 

Abridged sentences 190 

adjective sentences 194 

substantive sentences 212 

Absolute tenses 72 

Abstract substantives 6, 42, 102 

Accent, principal and subordinate 1 5 

Accentuation 15 

of the attributive combina- 
tion 168 

of compounds 53 

by contraction 57 

of compound relational 

words 58 

of compound verbs 59,63 

of compounds with im ... 59 

of foreign words 19 

of the objective combination 175 

of the predicative combi- 
nation 157 

of prefixes 16 

of relational words 16 

of terminations 16 

Accessory sentences 190 

their construction... 208 

their different kinds 191 

Accusative case 178 

governed by prepo- 
sitions 143 

by verbs and 

adjectives 183 


Accusative ease expressive of the 

factitive relation § 183 

of measure .... 182 

of time 187 

Activity, notion of s 

Address, modes of 121 

Adjective-pronouns 119 

sentences ill, 194 

their construction... 212 

substantives 7 

their gender 96 

Adjectives 3 

their comparison.,.. 117 

their declension 116,170 

governing the accusative... 1 82 

the dative 179 

the genitive 180 

prepositions 180 

in the factitive relation ..'. 183 

predicative and attribu- 
tive. 7, 115, 169 

primary 35 

secondary..... 49 

standing after substantives 149 

used substantively 7, 168 

Adverbs 52, 137 

demonstrative 128 

interrogative 131 

notional 140 

relational 138 

relative 131 

of frequency 138 

of intensity 138 

• of manner 138, 140 

of mood 138 

of place 138, 140 

of time 138, 140 


272 


INDEX. 


Adverbs, their comparison § 141 

their construction 210 

Adverbial forms 137 

numerals 134 

pronouns 1 19 

sentences 195 

causal 198 

comparative 201, 202 

concessive 200 

conditional 199 

of manner 201 

of place 196 

.of time 197 

— their construction ... 212 

Adversative conjunctions ... 153, 155 

Affixes 

The affix bar , 

cfjen ... 


e 

et(ep). 
en .... 

er 

t#t.... 

«fl 

in ..... 

if*:... 

&aft .. 


&eit(feit) 47 

fein 

«d> 

Ung 

ntfj 

far 

fam 

fd&aft 

fer 

tfjum , 

ung 


40 
52 
41 
45 
45 
51 
48 
45 
48 
43 
136 


3HI ., 

$ttletn, conjunction 153, 155 

in construction 209, Obs. 

Alphabet 21 

TO 138 

(aw) 202 

explanatory (as) 154 

expressive of the factitive 

relation (as) 183 


TO (when) § 197 

(than) 202. 

(but) 202, Obs.2. 

TO ba£ 202 

TO o&, m wenn 201 

%ifC 156 

2fa • 148 

expressive of the genitive 

relation 180 

of the ablative rela- 
tion 181 

-of manner 188 

%nbev 134 

3faben&al& 135 

Any 136, Obs.2. 

Ancient form of conjugation... 79, 81 

of declension 107 

of the inflection of 

adjectives.., 116 

— of primary substan- 
tives 32, 33 

Apposition 167, 171 

Articles definite and indefinite... 100 

their declension 100 

their use in general 101 

in particular... 102 

— — to point out 

gender and case 103 

omitted 102, Obs. 

Articulate sounds 21 

As : 138,201,202 

in adjective-sentences 194 

Aspirate mute consonants 26 

At 185 

Attribute 12, 167 

Attributive combination 12, 167 

its construction 209 

factor 12 

relation 12 

genitive relation 172 

2CucJ> 154 

SJtlf 148 

expressive of the genitive 

relation 180 

of the factitive 

relation 183 

— — of mariner ...... 188 


INDEX. 


273 


Wuf bag § 193 

Augment (ge) 29 

in derivation 33,44 

in the past participle 88 

Augmentation, initial and final . 29 

%U§ 144 

expressive of the genitive 

relation 180 

of the ablative rela- 
tion 181 

of finishing an ac- 
tion . 63, Obs.S. 

5Utfer 144 

with the genitive case... 14 3, Obs. 

SUtfjerbem 154 

9lu£er&alb 150 

Auxiliary verbs 10, 68 

70 

69 


of mood.... 
of tenses.... 
their 


use in 


conjugation 

for the perfect and 


89 


pluperfect tenses of intransi- 
tive verbs 91 

25et 145 

25cibe 133 

SBinnen 144 

25t$, prep. 150, 151 

conj 197 

By 185 

Cardinal numerals 133 

Cases 106, 178 

attributive 167, 172 

governed by the predicate 177 

' by prepositions 143 

improper 150 

expressive of locality 186 

of manner 188 

of time 187 

■ of persons 178, 179 

pointed out by the article 103 

Cause, real, moral, and logi- 
cal • 177, 

expressed by the gerund... 

Causal sentences 

Causality 

Change of the radical vowel ... 


181 
189 
198 
177 
32 


Change of the radical vowel in 

conjugation § 79 

Collective substantives... 6, 43, 44, 46, 

47, 48 

Combination, attributive 12, 167 

objective 13, 175 

its different kinds ... 176 

predicative 11, 157 

Common names 6 

Comparative degree of adjectives 1 1 7 

of adverbs ... 141 

sentences 202 

Comparison of adjectives 117 

irregular „.. 117 

of adverbs 141 

Composition 17, 53 

Compound forms of comparison 1 1 8 

sentences 152, 190 

tenses 78,89 

verbs, separable and inse- 
parable 59 

Compounds 53 

by contraction 54, 57, 168 

by union 54, 55 

of relational words 58 

notional words 59 

Co-ordinative conjunctions 152 

Copula 205 

Copulative conjunctions 154 

Concessive sentences 200 

— in an interroga- 


tive form 200 

Concord 11 

of the attributive adjective 169 

of the predicate 160, 161 

Concrete substantives 6, 38 — 41 

Condition expressed by the ge- 
rund 189 

Conditional mood 71, 78 

■ its use 165 

sentences 199 

in an interroga- 
tive form 199 

Conjugation 71, 79 

ancient and modern 79 

ancient 81 — 84 


274 


INDEX. 


Conjugation, irregular § 79, 86 

modern 35 

specimens of 92 

Conjunctions 10, 152 

adversative 1 53, 1 55 

affecting the construction 207 

causal 1 53, 156 

co-ordinative 1 52 

copulative 153, 154 

subordinative 152, 192 

Conjunctional adverbs 153 

Conjunctive mood 71,78 


its use. 


164 
22 
27 

Obs. 
29 
26 


Consonants 

doubled . . 

final 

liquid 

mute 

Construction 203 

direct and inverted 204 

of accessory sentences. . . . 208 

of adjective-sentences .... 212 

— — of adverbial sentences ... 212 

of adverbs 210 

of the attributive adjective 209 

combination. . 209 

_ — - ■ . inverted. . 209 

of cases , 210 

of compound sentences . . 212 

of the objective combina- 
tion 210 

inverted 2 1 1 

~ of the objective factors . . 210 

— — of the predicative combi- 
nation 205 

• — - of principal sentences 206 

inverted , 207 

of pronouns 210 

j of relational adverbs of 

mood 210 

; verbs . . . 205, 208 

of relational verbs in com- 
pound tenses in an accessory 

sentence 208 

— — of relational words 210 

of separable compound 


erbs 


205 


Construction of the substantive 

attributive § 209 

of substantive-sentences . . 212 

of the supine 212 

Contracted sentences 152 

Contraction of two syllables or 

words into one 17 

2)a, adverb 128, 139 

conjunction 197,198 

ttatmt 193 

£>ann 128, 154, 155 

Darum 156 

2)rt# 193 

omitted... 193 

Dative case 178 

expressed by prepo- 
sitions 179, Obs. 1. 

Dative case governed by verbs 

and adjectives 1 79 

by prepositions 143 

instead of a posses- 
sive pronoun or genitive 

case. 179, Obs. 2. 

of personal pronouns 


used in a peculiar manner. . 

179,035.5= 

Declension of adjectives ...... 116 

of articles 100 

of cardinal numerals .... 133 

ofber, bie, ba$ 124 

of berienige and berfefoe . 126 

of foreign substantives. ... 113 

• of indefinite numerals. ... 136 

of pronouns 

demonstrative 124, 127 

— indefinite 132 

, _ personal 1 20 

possessive 123 

of proper names 114 

— — of substantives 106 

ancient and mo- 
dern 107 

ofwefefrev ISO 

ofroer andrca^ 129 

Definite article. See Article. 

■ numerals 133 

Connect) .= 156 


INDEX. 


275 


Demonstrative adverbs § 128 

pronouns 119,124—128 


in compound sen- 


tences 


instead of the rela- 


192 


tive v 130, 194 

Senn 156 

2)ennoc& 155 

2>er, bit, ba$, article. ..' loo 

— — — demonstrative pro- 
noun... 104 

— — — relative pronoun 130, 194 
— their respective de- 
clension. See Declension. 

Derivative notions 2 

verbs 37 

words 2 

Derivatives, primary 2, 32 

secondary 2, 36 

2)effenungead[itet 1 5 $ 

3>efftal6 ..- iS6 

Setto 202 

2>e£roegen 156 

Dialects 18 

2)ie£.... 12? 

liefer 127 

®iefl*it$ 150 

Dimidiative numerals 135 

Diminutives 40 

Diphthongs 24 

Direct construction 204 

Direction. 143,177 

Distributive numerals 135 

2)0$ 155 

in construction 210 

Sort 128 

Double consonants 27 

2)raufjen, bvofren, buintcn — iss 

Duration of time 187 

2>urd& 147 

as a prefix e 63 

expressive of means j 8 1 

Dilrfen 

its conjugation 

(5, the vowel, its pronuncia- 
tion 

as sign of length 


70 
86 

23 
25 

T 


@, the vowel, dropped §17 

in the signs 

of conjugation 80 

declension 108 

— reduced to its pri- 
mary vowel i in the second 
and third person sing, pres, 
indicat., and in the imperative 
of the first ancient conjuga- 
tion 82 

@f>e 197 

(5tn, article 100 

indefinite pronoun 132 

numeral 133 

@inanber 120 

@irih)t 136 

(Sinev vcn betben 136, Obs. 2. 

@tnmal 135 

Either 136, Obs. 2. 

Ellipsis 17 

in the attributive combina- 
tion 168 

in imperative expressions . 166 

in the predicative combi- 
nation 1 57 

Emphasis 16 

@nbli$ 154 

@ntlana 150, i5i 

<£ntweber— ober 155 

@rfr 139 

@rfflidb, erjren^ 154 

(S£ 120 

indefinite 1 22 

omitted 1 59 

@tUdf>e 136 

©twelve 136 

QtWa 138, 210 

@tWa$ 132, 136 

Euphony , 30 

Eurythmy 17 

Existence, notion of , 3 

Factitive relation 178 

— expressed by the ac- 
cusative case 183 

by adjectives. . 183 

byd(# 183 


2 


276 


INDEX. 


Factitive relation expressed by 

the nominative case § 183 

by prepositions 183 

by the supine. . 184 

verbs 5, 37 

Factors of the attributive com- 
bination 12,167 

of the objective combina- 
tion IS, 175 

their 

subordination in construction 210 
of the predicative combi- 
nation 11 

principal 14 

objective 210 

subordinate 14 

igaUt 199 

$erner 154 

Final augmentation 29 

consonant 25, Obs. 

^Cl^lki) 156 

For 185 

Foreign substantives, their de- 
clension 113 

— their gender 98 

words 19 

their accentuation. . 1 9 

their orthography and 

pronunciation 19 

Forms, ancient and middle, of 

substantives 32 

ancient and modern, of 

conjugation 79 

— of declension 

of substantives 107 

of adjec- 
tives 116 

use 

■ participial 

simple and compound, of 

comparison 

spurious 141 

Fractional numerals 135 

^rcUicij 138 

Frequency, adverbs of 138 

Frequentative substantives 44 


170 
74 


1 1; 


From § 18 j 

#ur 147 

expressive of the factitive 

relation 183 

Future participle 77 

tenses 72, 78 

©art? 136 

®ar 138 

©ebt'n, used impersonally 67 

©egen 147 

©eyeniifrer 150, 151 

©ema£ 150, 151 

Gender of substantives 93 

of the ancient 


form 


94 


of the middle 


form 95 

of adjective-substantives.. 96 

of compound substan- 
tives , 97 

of foreign substantives ... 98 

of names of countries and 

places 98 

of secondary derivatives. . 97 

of substantive-infinitives. . 97 

Genitive, adverbial 140 

after in, unter, au§er. . 143, Obs. 

attributive 167, 172, 173 

its construction .... 209 

its use 173 

expressed by prepo- 
sitions 173 

of the object 174 

of manner 188 

— — of measure 180 

objective 180,187 

expressed by prepo- 
sitions 1 80 

predicative 1 58, 1 73 

of time 187 

(Senug 136 

in construction « 209, Obs. 

©ern 139 

in construction 210 

its comparative and super- 
lative 141 

Gerund 140 


INDEX. 


277 


Gerund expressive of cause and 

condition § 189 

of manner 188 

— of time 187 

its use 189 

©leic&WOl 155 

Government of prepositions ... 145 

— — of verbs and adjectives . . 177 

£), semiconsonant 28 

a sign of length 25 

$aben 68 

its conjugation 83 

its use with intransitive 

verbs 91 

omitted 208 

Ajflfe 135 

Jpalben 150, 151, isi 

$er, frier, t}in 128,139 

— — — their compounds. . 58 

£tenieben 1 38 

High-German language 18 

#infle$cn 155 

Winter 149 

as a prefix 63 

Historical tenses. 72 

$b#ff 118 

pC&i&ttS 141 

3, primary vowel 23 

standing for its 

secondary vowel e in the se- 
cond and third pers. sing. pres. 
indicative, and in the impera- 
tive of the first ancient con- 
jugation 82 

Imperative mood 71, 78 

•■ its termination 

dropped in the singular ... 82 

its use 166 

Imperfect tense 72 

— — — in the ancient 

and in the modern form .... 79 

■ its use 162 

Impersonal verbs 67 

governing the 

accusative 1§2 

the 

dative 182 


Impersonal verbs governing the 

genitive § 1 80 

Improper prepositions .... 142,150 

148 

— expressive of the factitive 

relation 183 

of manner 188 

— of time 148 


3" 


with the-genitive case. . 143, Obs. 

3nbtm 197, 198, 201 

Sftt&ef?, tnbeffen 155,197 

Snncr&alb 150 

Indefinite article. See Article. 

numerals 1 33, 1 33 

pronouns 119,132 

pronoun e$ 122 

Indicative mood 71,78 


its use 


Infinitive , . 74 

its use 75 

— — instead of the past parti- 
ciple 88 

substantive-infinitives .... 42 

with jju. See Supine, 

Inflection. See Conjugation, De- 
clension, and Comparison. 

Initial augmentation 29 

Inseparable compound verbs . . 59 

Intensity, relation of 8 

Interjections 10, Obs. 

Interrogative pronouns. See 
Pronouns. 

• sentences 207 

Intransitive verbs 5 

Inverted construction. See Con- 
struction 204 

3>genb 138 

— Otner, trgenb^ewanb 1 36, Ota. 2. 

Irregular comparison 117 


conjugation 


3« 


in construction 


'9, 86 
139 
210 
138 
202 
136 
155 

Segltc&ev 136 


3e, \emat* 

3e— befto , 

3'ebev, ^ebrocber, ^ebevmann, 
3ebocfi 


278 


INDEX. 


3emanb §132 

Sfener 127 

3enfeit$ 150 

3egt 139 

Su«8ff J38 

Reiner 1S6 

flb'nnen 70 

its conjugation 86 

Rmft 150, 151, 181 

Labial consonants 26 

sounds 22 

fiangS i5o 

£angi?en$ 14J 

Caflen • 70 

CaUt 150, 15J, 181 

Cefjten with the dative and ac- 
cusative 179, Obs. 4. 

Ceute 104,035.1. 

Lingual consonants 26 

sounds 22 

Liquid consonants 22, 29 

Locality. See Relation of lo- 
cality. 
Logical relation ... 1 77, 180, 181, 183 

Low-German dialect 18 

Wann 104,065. 1. 

Wan 132 

9)?an#e is6 

Manner, adverbs of. .. . 138,140, 188 

201 

188 
189 
188 


in construction 


expressed by the genitive 

case 

by the gerund 

by prepositions .... 

> in the form of the 

factitive relation 188 

Measure expressed by the geni- 
tive 180 

by the accusative . . 182 

names of. See Names. 

Mediae . . , 26, 71 

3)te&r 136 

SMrere 136 

9Ju'ine?y(eirjKU 120 

Middle form of substantives . . 32, 34 
their gen- 
der , 95 


9Eif? §63 

Wit 145 

expressive of the genitive 

relation 180 

of manner 188 

WWW 156 

Modern form of conjugation. . 79, 85 
of declension of ad- 
jectives 116 

of sub- 
stantives 107, 1 11 

Modified vowels 24 

in comparison 117 

in conjugation 80 

in declension of sub- 


stantives 


in derivation 


.. 110 
36 

3p0en 70 

— — its conjugation 86 

Mood 8, 71, 163 

Moral relation. . . . 177, 180, 181, 183 

Multiplicative numerals 135 

Wli$tt\ 70 

its conjugation 86 

Mute consonants 22, 26 

doubled 27 

Wad) 146, 155 

expressive of the ablative 

relation 181 

of the factitive relation . . 183 

Wafybm 197 

StfaeDj* 150 

Names of materials 6, 102, 104 

of measure after, nume- 
rals 105 

before the names of things 

measured , 173 

mmlitf) 154 

dltbm i 4 9 

3??6fr 145 

meutid) 138 

9? i#t in construction 210 

aHetn, ntc&t nur 154 

— , fonbern — 155 

9?tC&t$ 132,136 

91'mnanb 132 

3ftrycnb 138 


INDEX. 


2Y9 


9&0C&...., $139 

— in construction 210 

Nominative case 159 

expressive of the 

factitive relation 183 

Notions of activity and existence 3 

derivative 2 

radical 2, 4 

Notional adverbs 140 

words 1 

Number, relation of 8 

Numerals, adverbial 10, 133, 134 

cardinal 133 

definite 133 

dimidiative : . . 135 

distributive 135 

fractional 135 

indefinite 133,136 

multiplicative 135 

ordinal 134 

reiterative 135 

variative 135 

$lut\ 139 

Ob, conjunction 193 

— — preposition 149 Obs. 1, 180 

£>&erfjaI6 150 

Dbgteicfj, o6f#on, ofcwol 200 

Objective combination 13, 175 

its construction 210 

-factor 13, 175 

13 
176 
155 
185 
150 


relation 

its different kinds . . 


Obex 

Of 

D&ne 

with the supine 184 

On 185 

Ordinal numerals 1 34 

Organs of speech 21 

$aar (etn), as an indefinite nu- 
meral , 173 

Palatal sounds 22 

Participial forms 74 

Participles 74 

— - — present, past, and future. . 77 

Passive voice 66 

— its formation 90 


Passive voice used imperson- 
ally $67, 166 

Past participle, its formation ... 80 

with the augment #e, 

and without it 88 

tenses 72 

their use 162 

Persons and things 177 

Personal forms of conjugation 71, 73 

pronouns 119 

contracted with we> 

gen 151 

— their inflection 120 

Personality, relation of. 8 

Plural number of substantives. . 1 04 

Point of time 187 

Possessive pronouns 123 

Predicate 11, 157, 158 

in construction 205 

Predicative adjective 7, 1 15 

combination 11,157 

■ its construction. . 204, 205 

factor 11 

genitive 158,172,173 

relation 11 

Prefixes 59 


hi , 
ent. 
er 
per. 


their accentuation 

Prepositions 10,142 

— — before the supine 184 

cases governed by them 143, 1 50 

contracted with the defi- 
nite article , 1 25 

— __ with demonstrative 

pronouns 125 

with interrogative 

and relative pronouns ...... 129 

expressive of the ablative 

relation 181 

of the attributive re- 
lation 173 

after 

verbal substantives , 1 74 


280 


INDEX. 


Prepositions expressive of the 

dative relation $ 1 79 

of the factitive 

relation 183 

i of the genitive 

relation 180 

■ of manner 188 

improper 142, 1 50 

cases governed by 

them 150 

Present tense 72 

its use 162 

Primary adjectives 35 

derivatives 2, 32 

sounds 23 

i substantives 33 

their gender 94, 95 

Principal accent 15 

factor 14 

objective factor 210 

sentences 190 

their constructions 206, 207 

Pronouns 10, 1 1 9 

demonstrative 1 19, 192 

— — adjective 127 

substantive 1 24 

indefinite 132 

interrogative 119 

— adjective 1 30 

substantive 129 


personal 119, 120 

possessive 123 

reflexive 120 

relative 1 1 9, 1 92 

adjective 130, 194 

r— substantive 129, 193 

in construction 210 

their inflection. See De- 
clension: 

Proper names 

• their declension .... 

of countries and 

places, their gender 

apposition to their common 

names 171 

with titles 171 


6 
ill 


as 


Radical notions §2, 4 


sounds 

verbs 

vowel, its change . 


in conju- 


2 
31 
32 

79 


gation 

Real relation . 177 

Reciprocal verbs 65 

Reflexive pronouns 120, 182 

in construction 210 

verbs 5, 65, 182 

Reiterative numerals 135 

Relation 1 

ablative " 178, 181 

accusative 178, 182 

attributive 12,167 

dative 178, 179 

factitive 1 78, 183 

genitive 178,180 

logical ..., 177 

moral 177 

objective 13,175 

predicative 11,157 

real 177 

of causality 176, 177 

of intensity 8 

of locality 8 

expressed by 

cases 186 

of manner , 188 

expressed by 

adverbs, and by the genitive 
case 188 

expressed by 

the gerund 189 

of mood 8 

of notions one to an- 
other 8 

to the speaker . 8 

of number ' 8 

of personality 8 

of persons and things 177 

of quantity 8 

of time 8 

expressed by cases, 

and by the gerund 187 

Relational adverbs 10 


INDEX. 


281 


Relational adverbs of frequency, 
intensity,manner,mood, place, 

and time § 138 

— of mood in construc- 
tion 210 

■ verbs 68 

— in construction. . 205, 208 

words 1,9,10 

compounded 58 

with notional 


words 


in construction 

their accentuation. . 
used predicatively . . 


59 
210 

16 
158 
131 
192 


Relative adverbs 

pronouns 119,129. 

— not omitted in Ger- 
man 194 

tenses 72 

Roots 2, 31 

©ammt 150, 151 

<§#0n 139 

in construction 210 

Secondary adjectives. . . .., 49 

derivatives 2, 36 

sounds 23 

substantives 38 — 48 

their gender 97 

©ettt, to be 10, 68 

its conjugation 87 

its use in the conjugation 

of intransitive verbs 91 

— — its use with the supine ... 76 

omitted 208 

©Ctt, preposition 150, 151 

conjunction 197 

(gel&jt 126 

in construction ...... 209, Obs. 

Semi-accent 16 

Semi-consonant 22, 28 

Sentence 11 

accessory 1 90 

— adjective 191 — 194 

adverbial. See Adverbial 

sentences. 

compound 1 50 

— by subordination ... 190 


Sentence, principal § 190 

substantive 191, 193 

their construction. See 

Construction. 

Separable compound verbs .... 59 
in con- 
struction 

&id) 

Signs of comparison 

of conjugation 

of declension of adjec- 
tives 

— dropped 


of substantives 
dropped 


205 

120 

117 

80 

116 
170 
107 
108 
36 
30 


of derivation 

of euphony 

of length 25 

of relation 1 

their accentua- 
tion 16 

of union 56 

Simple tenses 78 

@0, demonstrative adverb 128 

adverb of intensity {tarn). . 138 

conjunction. . 198, 199, 200, 201 

relative pronoun . . 1 30, Obs. 1. 

(go— aU 202 

(So— ba£ 202 

@o root— alt 154 

So as, with the supine 201 

©clcfcer 127 

(SoKen 70 

its conjugation 86 

©onber 150, 151 

©onbern 154, 155 

©OJlft 139, 153 

Spurious forms 17 

©tatt 150 

Subject of the sentence. . 11, 157, 158 

expressed 

by an infinitive 75 

by 


a supine 


the object. 


76 

— omitted., 159 

— turned into 
67 


282 


INDEX. 


Subject of the sentence in con- 
struction § 205 

Subordinate accent 15 

factor 14 

Subordination of the objective 

factors in construction 210 

Subordinative conjunctions. . 152, 192 

Substantive-infinitives 42, 102 

pronouns 119 

sentences 191,193 

Substantives 3 

in apposition 171 

their declension. See De- 
clension. 

their gender. See Gender. 

their kinds 6 

of two forms of the plural 

number 112 

of two genders 99 

primary 33 

secondary 38 — 48 

used only in the plural 

number 104 

number 104 

Superlative of adjectives ...... 117 

of adverbs 141 

of comparison and of emi- 
nence 118, 141 

simple and compounded. . 118 

used predicatively 160 

Supine 76 

after e&ne 184 

after verbs expressing know- 
ledge or opinion 184 

in construction 212 

its use 184 

with fmben and fein 76 

Supplementary object 177 

■ ■ in construc- 
tion 210 

Tenses 71, 72 

compound 89 

their use 162 

Tenues 26 

Terminations. See Signs. 

Teutonic language 18 


X&etlS , §154 

X&un (to do), as auxiliary verb, 70 Obs. 

Time, relation of 8 

expressed by cases 187 

by the gerund 187 

To 185 

Transitive verb .. 5, 37, 60, 63 

Srog 150 

Ueber .- 149 

as a prefix 63 

as a preposition of time . . 149 

expressive of the ablative 

relation 181 

of the genitive rela- 
tion 180 

Um 147 

as a prefix 63 

as a preposition of time s . 147 

expressive of the factitive 

relation 183 

with the supine 184 

Um — tptfteh... 150,183 

contracted with per- 
sonal pronouns 151 

Un in composition 59 

Unaccented syllables 16 

Unb 154 

Ungeac&tet 150 

Union 54, 55 

Unter 149 

as a prefix 63 

with the genitive case. . 143, Obs. 

Unter&afb 150 

Unweit 150 

Upper-German language 18 

Variative numerals 135 

Verbs 3, 5, 64 

auxiliary. See Auxiliary 

verbs. 

derivative 37 

— — factitive 37 

governing the accusative. . 182 

the dative 179 

■ the genitive 180 

prepositions 1 80, 1 83 

impersonal 67 

— — inseparable compound 59 


INDEX. 


283 


Verbs, intransitive § 5 

radical 31 

reciprocal 65 

reflexive „ 65 

relational 68 

separable compound 59 

transitive 5 

Verbal adjectives 32 

substantives 32 

2?ermittelj* i5o 

2?ermb'jje 150, 151 

$iet 3 36 

EieHeic&t 138 

in construction 210 

2?0tt as a prefix 63 

2?on 144 

expressive of the ablative 

relation ,. 181 

of the attributive re- 
lation 173 

, of the objective geni- 
tive relation 180 

— — with the passive voice 179 

2?0r 149 

expressive of the ablative 

relation 181 

of the genitive rela- 
tion 180 

Vowels 22 

changed 32, 79 

dropped 17 

long and short 25 

modified. See Modified 

vowels. 

their pronunciation 23 

v 2Ba(jrenb, preposition 1 50 

— — conjunction 1 97 

SBann isi, 197 

129 
129 
129 
193 
130 
155 


Wat 

its declension and use. . 

instead of Wflrum 

in substantive-sentences 

Was fUr (Siner 

2Bebev— no(J> 

2Deaen 150, 151 

contracted with personal 

pronouns , 151 


SBegen expressive of the ablative 

relation § 181 

2DeU 198 

expressive of time 197 

2Bef#er 130 

in adjective-sentences .... 194 

WcW ciner 130 

2Beni5, wettiger 136 

2Bemgjten$ 141 

2Denn 131, 199 

omitted 199 

Wtm and), wenn g(ei#, werni 

fc&on 200 

2£tT, its declension and use. ... 129 

in substantive-sentences . . 193 

SKerben 68 

its conjugation 80, 82 

its use in the formation of 

the future tenses 89 

of 

the passive voice 90 

2£iber 147 

■ as a prefix 63 

2Bie 131 

expressive of time 197 

in comparative adverbial 

sentences. 201, 202, Obs. 1. 

3Bi|Jen, its conjugation 86 

3BC 131 

expressive of condition. . . 199 

2Dofevn 199 

2Bo(jer and roo&in 131 

mi 139 

in construction 210 

2Mlen 70 

its conjugation 86 

Words, notional and relational I 

derivative 2 

foreign. See Foreign words. 

Written language 18 

3u, adverb of intensity (too). . 138,183, 

202 

preposition 146 

as sign of the supine 76 

its 

position in the inseparable 

compound verbs. 76 


284; INDEX. 


3lt, preposition, in the future 
participle § 76, 77 

— expressive of the fac- 
titive relation 1 83, 1 84 

— : of manner 188 

3ubem .......... — • 154 


StlfOlge §150, 151 

Stmuber 150, i5i 

3nw 138 

in construction 210 

3ttuftfmt 150 


THE END. 


Valuable Works for Students, published by Air. Murray. 

ELEMENTS of RHETORIC. By Richard Whately, DD., Principal of 
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PR/ELECTIONES ACADEMICS. By the Bishop of Landaff. New 
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The GREEK GRAMMAR of AUGUSTUS MATTHLE. Translated into 
English by the late Rev. E. V. Blomfield, Fellow of Emanuel College, Cam- 
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Not 


words; viz. 


of A 


Notions 


C Radical. 
\ Reflective. 

("Simply transitive, 
I Factitive. 


TABLE I.— Notions and Relations, § 1—14 
Notions are expressed by 


Notional words 


Kotions 


■of Activity, §3. 


' Verbs, § 5. 


. of Existence, § 3. 


Intransitive f Radical. 

' ' \ Reflective. 

Transitive J" Simply transitive. 

' ' (. Factitive. 

. Adjectives, 5, 7 / Judicative. 
* " 1 Attributive. 

c , I Names of Persons ") f Proper Names. 

bubstantives, § 6. < ' > < Common Names. 


iNamesofThingsl 0011 " 64 ^ ^ Names of M^ena.s. 
L Abstract. 


;}(! 


Relations are expressed by 


Relations' 


of Notions 
one to an- 
other, & 8. 


Inflection . . and by . . Relational words, § 9: , 

of the Predicate to the Subject in the Pre- 1 ' "* ' ' * > 

dicative Combination, §11 ) Personal forms of Conjugation Relational verb fein (to be). 

rf x^as^tr b ' in the *■} 5??? v**™ 

' » J -Attributive Genitive. 

of the Object to the /-of Causality Caw* nf <3„Kct, n c 

Predicate in the Ob- 1 of Locality 7 A?verb,» Jf K f ' 

^Combination,} of Time / ^vets of ^} ■ ■ ■ 

Lof Manner ArlvprK« n e m,„„J 


13. 


Prepositions, § 10. 


Adverbs of Manner. 


„ „„ ("Real Existence 

of Mood 1 Possibility 

L Necessity .... 


of Notions to 
the Speaker, 


> Moods of Verbs ("Auxiliary Verbs and Adverbs 

' ' t of Mood, §10. 


f Auxiliary Verbsand Adverbs 

| ofT 


( Present 

• - !> Tenses of V^rb* f A "* 

Time, § 10, 

Comparison of Adjectives Adverbs of Intensity, § 10. 

of the Speaker 
Subj. sp 
Subj. spoken of J 


of Personality 


fof the Speal 
< of the Subj. 
Ufthe Subj. 


*| ■"■•!- an to <> Personal forms of Conjugation Personal Pronouns, § 10. 


of Locality ... . 

of Number . . D ," ' V™ * V " " V * : •••'• ■ Adverbs of Place. 

-of Quantity P,ural Number of Substantives Numerals. 

Numerals of Quantity, § 136. 

'"" ,VerbS ' be ' nS °" ,y Separate CoTm of Substantives and Adjectives (§ 137), are here classed along with the other form, of inflection. 


Roots 

are 
all 


1—52. 


^ry Derivatives by Affixes. § 36. 

d from Secondary Derivatives. 

X (Engl, er) from Abstract and Concrete 

i_j « ^ -: 1 i c. r» 


TABLE II. — Derivation of Notional Words, §31—52. 


Roots 

are 
all 

Verbs, 
which 
now 
have, 
or 
for- 
merly 
had, 
the 

ancient 
form 
of 

Con- 
juga- 
tion. 
531. 


Derivatives 


Primary, formed from Roots by a change 

of the Radical Vowel. $ 32. 
Accessory forms, with the augment ,ge. § 33. 

f No termination. 1. 
Ancient J Accessory forms with the 
form, < terminations d, C11, CV, 
§ 33. by which the significa- 

tion is not affected. 2. 
Middle f Termin ationse,t,be,(T. 3. 
form < Accessor ll forms, in which 
I the termination e has 


$ 34. 


*- been dropt. 4. 


J" No termination. 5. 

AHWHvp<:</ Accessory forms with the termina- 
Adjectives'j tiong d) m> ffj e> ^ wh . ch do not 

L alter the signification. 6. 


J?oo/J. 

beifjtfti, bteg<en, binb. 
on, brenmen, beiifu'n, 
bring^n, fatten, finb< 
en, ffiefl*en, whtn, 
ijoniiH'ii.ijVjt-i'ii.feiiii' 
en, foufen, m'6f\-en, 
reitcti, fetvcn, fcpiep= 
fii, fclilagdi, f*ncib. 
en, fcfircifricn, fpKcJ. 
en, timcii, traicen, 
trinf ■■tn.wafytn, jicd- 


Primary Derivatives. 

l. 25if?, 25ug, SSanb, 25unb, 2>anf, Srang, 
#atr, tfunb, ^lucu ©rab, Crttif, 3iitt, @cfm£, 
fccblag, Scbnitt, lapritrh, Xranf, Xriinf, 3ug. 
2. 23ifftn, ©arten, ©ipfi'f, ©(ili'iifi'i, 3Kefffr, 
ffummer. 3. 2Su*t, SSrunft, JlueBt, CSatf, 
(Sift, ©rube, (Snift, ©mil?, jfuiibe, Saute, 
5Bac6t,Sid)t,©cl)[fl*t,i5pracI;e,X(iat,Xreiif, 
3Ba(6e, 3itct>t- 4. iiiit, Sdmm, Scbat', todnir, 
2Babl. 5. fliitf, glcidi, grefs, tuub, ftflanf, 
frtVdii, fcbwauX liarf, trcu, tvact). G. bitter, 
eitel, eben. 


Substan- 
tives . . 


Secondary, formed from Primary Derivatives by Affixes. § 36. ~* 
Accessory forms from Roots and from Secondary Derivatives. 

f * (Engl, er) from Abstract and Concrete 
Substantives, particularly from Proper 
Names of Countries and Places 1 
Accessory form from Roots. 2. 
lino. (Engl, ling) from Concrete and Abs- 
tract substantives. 3. 
til from names of Persons. 4. 
L Accessory form from secondary forms 5 
ClK 11 (Engl, fen from Concrete Sut> 
l It HI J stantives. 6. 

Augmented Collective Substantives, from 
Concrete and Abstract Substantives. 7. 
Accessory form: Frequentative Substan- 
tives from Verbs. 8. 
11 ig (Engl, ness) from Abstract Substan- 
tives. 9. 
Accessory form from Verbs. 10. 

fan 


Names of 
Persons . ' 


Diminu- 
tives . . 


Adjectives 


from Abstract Substantives. 


Ci (Engl.^) from Primary and Secondary, 
Concrete and Abstract Substantives, 
and from Verbs. 12. 

ftfaft (Engl, ship) J ^ P f mar y and 

ig(Engl.j/) from Abstract Substantives. 14. 
Accessory form from Concrete Substan- 
tives, 15; which again admits of the 
Adverbial form in icht. 16. 
ifcfi (Engl, ish) from Names of Persons, 
Countries, and Places. 17. 
Accessory form from Abstract Substan- 
tives. 18. 
etl (Engl, en) from Names of Materials. 19. 
ffrom Abstract Sub- 
fa m( Engl, some)) stantives. 20. 
<-f>&t ] Accessory form from 

L Verbs. 21. 
licit (Engl, ly) from Abstract Substantives 
and Adjectives. 22. 

ffrom Names of Persons. 23. 

A1 , J Accessory j* ™^ 5 -™: . 

Adverbs ^ forms ] Dlminutlve Adjectives, 25; 

J which again admit of the 

(_ Adverbial form in (icht. 26. 
a ft, from Abstract Substantives and Ad- 
jectives. 27. 
L Accessoryform from Names of Persons. 28. 
r Intransitive. 29. 

Verbs J Transitive, 30; fromwhichSubstantivesare 

L again formed by the termination una. 31. 
e. 32. ° 

(Hit (Engl, hood), Fcit. 33. 

Accessoryform from Secondary Adjec- 
tives. 34. 


Substantives : Abstract . 


EXAMPLES. 

Secondary Derivatives. 

l.CSufer, fitter, ©cfinitter, X&Ster, ©tfweijer, 5Bomcr. 2. 9Jeitcr, ©cfmeiber. 3. tfilnbrina 

5IU*tiina, Siicmiing. Wiinfriina. 4. Jjirtin, jjjelbin, Jtb'cfcin. 5. Cebrfrin.ajSfcSerln. 6. Zdum- 

cI)en,S'iJ6iiclKii,Stii()KlK'ii ffna'&lein, SSiicfirein. 7. ©ebirge, (Se(iirn, ©ebrnnae, @efpvac&. 8 ©e. 

laufe, ©evebe. 9.SSUnbn iani| | ttni lo 5inbevni| @rforbevni| 11. <S*icf> 

fill, Srangfal, 9!atbfel. 12- ©flaoerei, £eu#elei,3a'flei'ei, 3?eiterei,9?Suberer. 13. ffnecbtfeftaff 
5nunbf*(ift,iBitterf*«ft,SMt , enf*oft,Setbent6um,9?ittei't6um,3ubent6iim. 14. U|rig, fluifig! 
iiuulnig, fliicbtig, giiiiftig. 15. bluinig, fanbig, milcbig. 16. blumicbt, mirtficbt. 17. Jt'n'ecbtifcb,' 
biebifeb, fcSwebifcli, fdlnifd). 18. ncibif*. janfifeb. 19. gotben, feiben, Jofjem. 20. furcbtfam' 
fliebfam, watffam, banffcar, fitftbar, fuw&tbar. 21. efibar, tritifbar. 22. wortli*, |'*riftli*' 
gliicflicli, abficytli*, weijlicl), treuli*. 23. niteiluli, Daterlicfi, foniglicd. 24. glaubli*, beroeg- 
lirt), (H-gi'cifli*. 25. weifli*, a'ltlicfi. 26. weiflicjt, griiiilicfn. 27. iranbbaft, funbbaft, wabr. 
baft, franfbaft. 28. meifrevbaft, riefenbaft. 29. prangen, pmnfen, buften, burffen. 30. fallen, 
triiiifen, brSnaen, fia'vfen, fcbit>at6en. 31. pltung, ©tarfiing, erjiebung. 32. ©Ute ©rijge' 
StSrfe. 33.S*dn6eit,S!Dei«fieit,JK»inieit 1 ©telfeit,iBitterteit. 34.Sanfbarfeit,5urcbtfamfeif! 


Of 


are 


Of the Neuter 
der are : 


Gen- 


.niddle 
Primary Substanti 
Prefixes, Advert 

1. Those which 

@eroc&, ©efanfl, ©otift 


.-A_ 


I. Abstract Substantives of 
the description of Adjec- 
tive Substantives (§ 35). 


I 


TABLE III. — Gender of Substantives, § 93 — 99. 


Of the Masculine Gender are : 


Primary Substantives of the ancient form (§ 33), and their Compounds with 
prefixes, Adverbs, &c, except the following, which are Neuter. 
I T/iose which have the Augment cje, except ©cbrattcb, ©cfeonfc, ©CtUlg, 

@Wi*> @cfan>3, ©cfcbmacf, ©effanf, ©emiim, which are Masculine. 
2, The words: 

iitb 


9K)5 

J8HC& 

©am 

Ihnt 

Sad, 

©elb 

w»j 

Sing 

©ta$ 

%w 

Serf 

©lieb 

<M 

m 

©oft 

m^ 

& 

©rofi 

m 

m 

©ra$ 

mn 

gnbe 

■gaar 

??e|l«f 

grbe 

•6«j 

3?«t 

®i 

.gauS 

3)itr 

So* 

.geer 

m 

Sa? 

■geil 

aiatt 

fidb 

•geft 

iBUi 

M 

.gemb 

Slut 

5«t 

0«il 

Soot 

geticr 

■Sett 

Srctt 

fttcifcfi 

.girn 

Srob 

SU>U 

«olj 


Cod& 

eoo^ 

£otb 

mail 

?D?al 

20?atj 

Worf 

STOap 

3)icer 
59?ebl 
SKerf 


9?efJ 

D6ft 

Dbr 

Del 

$aar 

qjeeb 

qjfonb 

3tab 
Stiff 

Oieid) 
9?eil 
9?inb 


©cbeit Xucb 

©cbiff SBerbecf 

©cbilf SBerlieS 

©chtofj 2?ieb 

©dbmolj SJolf 

©dfjocf 2ltad)i5 

©cbivein 2Bebr 

©cbroert 2Sci6 

©eit 2Berg 

©ie6 2Berf 

©pecf 2Mb 

©picl 2Bort 

©trob gdt 


CJluflcnnurf) 3?obr 
9Mu6 ©alj 


©turf 
Xau 

Xl)al 

Xbter 


9?eft 


©ebaf Xbor 


3c«3 

3i»tf 
3hm 


.0OV11 

•gitbn 

3oe{> 

£al6 

tfinb 

Sinn 

JOdb 

Snie 

ivorn 

tfraut 

Kveuj 

Camm 

Eftnb 

SauG 

Sebn 

£eib 

fiicbt 

OJs. Those Primary Substantives which have the terminations el, ell, 
except the following : 

a. Feminine: 

2!bcr .galftev SRafer Wet 

Shifter .fammcr S9?uttcf Slmpel 

Slattcf JTeltcr 9?atter Slmfel 

gutter Jliefer Otter 2ln.ad 

glfter (5i«te) Outrtcv Wet 

Safer .Stammer ©djtenber Slgcl 

Sebcr flapper ©cbultcr 2?urfel 

Slitter Ceber 

Jolter £eiter 

k together with the Names of Rivers : Siller, Siber, 3'Uer, 3'fcr, O&er, Ofer, Sffiefeif, SRofel, &c 

1 b. Neuter: 

Kilter Sttttev Caftcr 3)iicber Ufer 

JBauer ©atter £eber 3)?ufrer Staffer 

giter ©itter Cuber OJolfter 2Better 

guter Maftcr Walter Otubcr 2tfunber 

guber £ager fSReflev ©ilber Simmer 


: also Masculine, 


Sroffet .gummel 3?afpel ©piubcl 


gicbet 

ftacfel 

SefiH 
j-ibel 
@a6cl 
©eifjel 


Jfitfld Ofaflcl ©taffel 

ftuppel ©djadjtet ©toppel 

j?urbet ©ebatifel Xafel 

SRangel ©cbaufet Xrommet 

2>?iifcbcl ©ebiubel 2L?ad;tet 

9?abel ©cbiiflcl ffioffel 


Xodbter Seid;fel ©iirad 3?cfTet ©emmet TOinbct 
Simper Siftel .gecbet 9?ubet ©iebet SBurjcl 


9)?anbel SJcdfcn 2Pappen 
Dtiibel gifen Seieben 
2l'iefel g-iillen 

Siflen 

Eaten 


II. Those Names of Persons and Animals which are of the description of Adjec- 

tive Substantives (§ 35), except bie grail, bie SQJaife. 

III. Secondary Substantives formed by the Affixes er (§ 38), and ling (§ 41). 


Of the Feminine Gender are : 
, , ^ 

I. Primary Subtantives of the middle 
form (§ 34), except : 


1. Masculine: 



©aft 

Surff 

3)faft 

©lift 

Sebacbt 

grnfi 

SKifi 

Sroft 

a?ctracbt 

5-roft 

ai?onat 

2?erbae(,t 

Sienfi 

©afdit 

»?onb 

Serltifi 

Socbt 

©eivinft Oioft 

Stttanfr 

Srabt 

•Secbt 

©ebacbt 

Sierat 

Sitnfr 

em 

©ebaft 

Swift 


2. Neuter: 

©ift .gaupt .geft illeinob Cicftt ©tift 

Obs. The following, in most of which the 
termination e has been dropped (§ 34), are 
also to be regarded as belonging to the 
middle form, and accordingly Feminine. 

SlvBeit ©ewalt 3>?ileb 


Sfl&n 
»anf 
SBraut 
2Jrufr 


©ier mil 

.ganb 9?otl; 

•gafi 9?ug 

•gaut qjeiit 


©cbmir 

©djur 

©pur 

©tint 

©treu 

Sbiir 

Xrauer 

Sabt 


•giilb Quat 

Sjurcj .gut aiaft 

Saner i?oft STtibr 

ft-eier ^ lt [ ; OJucffe&r 2Banb 

glur Stir ©ait 2M>r 

Slut £aucr ©cham SDillfiibr 

gubr iciui ©d)ar 2But 

©an« SOfarf <5d)au Jabl 

©e6iibr Waticr ©cbeu 3i« 

©efal;r SftauS ©cbcuer 

©eig !D?aiit ©d;mac6 

II. The Secondary Substantives formed 
by the Affixes in (§ 39), UIKJ ({ 43), 

ct (§4-6), e(§47), bcitorfeit(J47), 

and fdjnft (J 48) : except tev gor= 
u 1111,9. 


Of the Neuter Gen- 
der are : 

I. Abstract Substantives of 
the description of Adjec- 
tive Substantives (§ 35). 


Substantive Infinitives 
($42); Augmented, Col- 
lective, and Frequenta- 
tive Substantives (§ 44); 
and those formed by the 
Affixes d;en, lent, el ( \ 40), 
iii(F, fat, fel (§ 45), and 
tbum (§48): except, 


1. Masculine: 

jrrtbum, 20acb^tt;um. 
SReicbtbum, 

2. Feminine: 

2>ebran,<)nif? grfparnig 
SBefiimmernig S'auluig 
SSeforgnip Sinflernig 
®etru6nig S«nntiiig 
25emanbtni|j XriiDfal 
gmpfdiignif SBerbammnif 
grlau6nif SJilomf 


III. Names of Countries and 
Places : except, 

bie Caufi$, bie 3Narf, bie 
i)3falj, bie ©cbiveij ; names 
of Countries formed by the 
Affix ei (e.g. bie Xiirfei), 
which are feminine ,■ and 
some compounds with 

©an, 21 ue, SJJurg: as, 

ber3ibeinfiau,bie2b\tteraii, 
bie ajJartburfl. 


Obt. I, The following words have a different gender, according as their signification is different : 

2>anb, masc. volume, neut. band, tie, 9!?t'nf(ft, masc. man, neut. wend. 

3?Ullb, — alliance, — bundle. ©cf»il&, — shield, — sign of an inn. 

Gticr, — choir, — chorus. ©tift, — peg, tag, — foundation (ecclesiastical). 

Ol'IjUlt, — contents, — talari/. Slh'il, — part, — share, portion. 

©ift, — saliva,foam, — poison, Sjerbietlft, — profit, — merit. 

iiiivj, — Harzforcsl, — resin. gee, — lake, fern. sea. 

llchll, — reward, — wages. @l'fi*lllltni|J, fern. Imowledge, neut. judicial decision. 

Obs. II. Foreign Substantives retain the gender which they have in the original language : except, 
Masculine : 91 1 ur, Sialelt, ?ipl)tl'oiui, ffiiirper, Jlotnif, SJJimft, Ditiin, Sempel, Sribut, Sitriol, and some others. 
Feminine: Jiibcl, ivan^-l, Ci'ili'l. •Vninin", and some others. 
Neuter: 9I6eilteuer, (»*f, tfeitfter, tfiebcr, ©enie, Kamcl, Cil-printh, qjapier, JTonfuhit, gpiffopflt, iproteftcrat, and other abstract Substantives i 

Obs. III. Compound Substantives have the gender of the component which stands last : except, 

Masculine: SRiHWOtf, Slfcftfett. „ 

Feminine: ©aiifiiimth, tsjrogtmitb, ©djivermutt), SKeunauae. 


Articles, a 


Si] 


pii 


i 

Infinitiv 
of both for 


— Ctt 


lion of the Ver 
Conjunctive 

- A__ 


TABLE IV. — Inflection of Verbs, Substantives, Adjectives, Articles, and Pronou 


I. Conjugation (§ 78—80). 


Ind 

Cfl/ilW. 

Conjunctive. 

Conditional. 

Present 

Imperfect. 


' 

of both forms 

anc. form. mod. f. 

both forms. 

ancient form. 

mod. form. 

t\. -e 

- — — et -e 

— C 



Sing-i 2. — c(i 

4 —eft — et -eft 

-eft 

£3 -eft 

like tbe 

(.3. — et 

2- — — et-e 

— e 


Imperfect 


° o 


i-Sf 

uw> _cn 

of the 

Cl. —en 

&* —en — et-en 

—en 

modern 

Plur.< 2. — et 

s — et — et -et 
c —en — et -en 

— et 

'■%£ — et 

form. 

U. —en 

—en 

S " —en 



Imperative. 


(Comp.Tab.V. Obs. 6.) 


Infinitive 
of both forms. 


Participial for 


Pres. Part, 
of both forms. 


— enb 


Past Participle, 
ancient form. mod. form. 


Conjugation of the Verb fein, to be (§ 87). 
Indicative. Conjunctive. Conditional. Imperat. Participial foi 


Present. Imperf. 

,3,1.6m c finb S.nmr S.fei P.feien S.rUare 

.S 2. 6ifi = feib roarefl feijl feiet roarefl 

w 3. ift ^ jmb &c. anc. f. fei feien &c. anc. £ 


s. ret 

P.fetb 


Infill. 

fein 


Participle. 

Pres. feienb 
Past, geroefen 


Conjugation of the Verb &a6cn, to have (§ 85). 

Indicative. Conjunctive. Conditional. Imperat. Participial fo; 


Present. Imperfect. Infin _ Participle. 

fcV) l. ba6e c bafcen S. batte P. batten S.ba6e P.baBen S. batte P. batten c UM . ^ * . 

.5 2. baft .3 ba&et ' battefr battel Ijabeft ba6et batteft battel p Jfar* J 

w 3.bat ^ba6en batte batten babt ba6en batte bAtten R !> a6ct Past. 9 cba6t 


II. Declension. 


Of the Substantive (§ 106, 107). 


{Norn 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 

{Norn. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 


ancient form. mod. f. 

■ti 


Nom. — — 


-e (er) 
-e («) 
—en (em) 
— e (er) 


1} 


Of t7ie Adjective (§116). 


ancient form. modern form. 

Masc. Fern. Neut. M. F. N. 
— er — e — eg — e — e — e 
—eg (en) — er —eg (en) —en —en —en 
—em — er —em —en —en —en 
—en — e — ti — en — e — e 


— e 
— er 
—en 


Of the Definite Article (§ 100). 


Of the Personal Pronouns (§ 120). 


Of the Interrogative Pronoun (} 129.) 


M. 

ber 

beg 
bem 
ben 


N. 
bag 
beg 
bem 
bag 


first pers. second pers. third person. 

Masc. Fem. Neut. 
id) bit er fie eg 

meiner (mem) beiner (bein) feiner (fein) ihrer fcincr (fein) 
mir bir ibm ibr ibm 

mich bicb ibn fie ti 


reir 
unfer 
ting 
ung 


person. 


ivelfen 
mem 

men 


thing. 


i (me(?) 


ibr 
eiter 
eucb 

eucb 


fie 

ibrer 
ibnen 
fie 


III. Comparison (§ 117). 
Comparative -jli — er 
Superlative **■ | — efl 


Obs. The vowel is not modified in the Comparison of Secondary Derivatives, of those which have the diphthong mi, and of the following: 
runt gerabe farg matt fadbte fc&i'off itumpf 

falb glatt fnapp platt faiift (farr tell 

fait &o&l la&m plump fatt (toij coll 

flacb hcib lag ro& fcbiaff (fratf jaf>m 

frcfi fapl [off run& fcfelanf frumm 


,r Verbs, § 81—86. 


onj ligation. 
ith Radical 
vel ei. 


reiten 

fcftetfjeit 

fcfcleicten 

fcfcleifen 

fcfclctgcn 

fcbmeiffen 

fcbmibeti 

fcfcreitm 

flreidwt 

fmiten 

wic&en 


Third Conjugation. 
Verbs with Radical Vowel a 
(o, air, u). 




fa«, c, u) 

Blafeit 

Braten 
fallen 
fatten 

fatten 

feancjen 
fatten 


(an, c, u) 

r)eij?CH 
lafjhi 
laufen 
fatten 

rufen 

fdblafcn 

frozen 


^fliten has [raperf. fciefr ; and |f(cn has Im 

perf. gin^, Part. &egan$eru 


b. 


Bacfen 

fabrcn 


u a 

fcblaqesi 


TABLE V.—Fe> 


bs of the Ancient Form of Conjugation, and Irregular Verbs, § 81 86. 


First Conjugation. 
Verbs With Radical Vowel i (or e, 3, 6, which are Secondary Vowels of i). 


6i»beit ftincjen fdwinqen ninfen 

biug*n viivjen fnijaen winbeit 

brhiflen febinben fiufen juuiicjen 

fiiiben fchlincjen fprinflen 

jriingen fd;nrinben (linfcn 

Siligen and febinben have II in the Imperfect. 


fcbroinmien treffe 


gdttn 

(iiincn 

belfen 

fpinnen 

fommen 

fprecben 

nebmen 

(Tecben 

rmnen 

ffcblen 

fcbelten 

frcr6en 


en 

Berberben 
tvev6eu 
iverben 
roerfen 
tjeivinnen 


e (a b au)f ° ° 

Uwtflm frieren «•= l fc&mcljen 

Gieejen gft^rcu vtx-J mn fd>nau6en 

bieten a.eniefien melfen 

brefeben giegen pfkflen 


Wen?™' rie * c " 
-J l)c6cn 


i. i, e (a) 

ficanmen ,a.e6aren 
berejen 
berflcu 
brecben 
erfchrecfen 

empd v 

'ffierben has Imperf. rourbe, instead of the antiquated Warb. 
The Conditional of belfen,|terben, t>erberbeii,werben,tt>erben, 
and roerfen, has u; that of beginnen, befeblen, empfeblen, 
frfr|ten,gelten, befinncn.geminen, fchelten, fpinnen, fte&len, 
has o ; that of fdwimmen has a or c. 

The Vowel is long in the Imperfect of brecben, fommen, 
fprerfjen, iterhen, trefen, erfrhrecfen; it is short in the Past 
Participle of nebmen. 

Obs. When Verbs of the First Conjugation have the Secondary vo 
third pers. Sing. Pres. Indie, as well as in the Sing. Imperative : except i 
(ntiijrn, weben. The termination e of the Sing. Imperative is dropped i 


fechten 
flcchten 
flieflen 
tTielxii 
fTiegen 


fiefen 
Hauben 
Himmen 
friecben 

lii.gen 


faufen 
fallen 
febcren 
fdrieben 
febiegen 
fcbliefjen 


fdmuiben 

fdjroten 

fdjrchren 

fdwellen 

fcbwbKii 

fteben 

fpriegen 

tfieben 

triefen 


.a flitf en, genietfeii, gieften, friecnen.riecbeii, faufen, fc&U 

fieben, fpriepett, uerbiie|seil, the Vowel is shortened in th 
Participle. In jicbeil, I) is changed into g; and in fitft 


triiejen 

ocrbriefien 

wlieren 

tmwirren 

roeben 

luiegen 

ivSjjen 

(enviigen) 

jiebeii 


•II. fcbiiegen, 

Imperf. and 
.fintor. 


i, e a t 

bitten Qtbm lefeit feben terpen 

effen flenefen liegei! figen 

freflen gefebeben meflen treten 

The Vowel is long in the Imperfect of bitten, elTeil, frcffi'lt, me(Ten, 
fieen, oergeiren, and in the Participle of bitten, glgetl has Imp. fap, 

Part, gefefieii. 

)wel e, S, or 0, it is reduced to its Primary vowel i (ie), in the second and 

bewegen, ga'bren, beben, melfen, pflegen, feberen, febw iiren, fcbroiircii. 


Second Conjugation. 

Verbs with Radical 

Vowel ei. 


6effei|?eit 

bcijjen 

erbleicben 

gleidxn 

gleiten 

qveifen 

feifeu 

fneifen 

loibeit 

pfeifen 

reifen 


bleiben 

beihen 

Ici&en 

Hieiben 

preifen 

rei6en 

febeiben 

fc&einen 


reiteii 

fdjeigen 

fdjleicfcen 

fcbleifen 

febteijjen 

fdmieifieii 

fdmeiben 

fdjveiten 

frreicben 

ftreiteii 

lvcichcii 


fchvei6cn 

fefcreien 

fchroeiqen 

fpeien 

fteiflen 

treiben 

rocifen 

jCiben 


Third Conjugation. 
Verbs with Radical Vowel a 
(p, nit, n). 


(ait, c, u) 
6tnfeii 
Braten 
fallen 
fangen 

baltcn 

b'liyen 
Iwiicn 


(au, p, i0 
6eifcn 
lalfen 
laufcu 
ratten 
rufeii 
fcbtafei? 
frojjcii 


fatten has Imperf. biit ; and Ji'&i'n I 
pcrf. giiy, Part, fjfgjnicn. 


a(0 

6acfcn 
fabrcii 
arabeii 
labcn 

fcfcatfeii 


fcbtnqcn 

llcbeu 
tiacji'ii 

wachfeii 

trafchcn 


©ti'bfn has Imperf. |ranC>,Condit. [railbe and 
fiiln&f, Part, geftanbrn. 

The second and third pers. Sing. Pres. Indie, 
modify the Vowel a into a, except in labcn and 
fcbaifcn. In laufeil, the Vowel is modified 
intoau; in |?Pp-eil, into 0. 

Of the Verbs fatten, faljcn, fpaften, malcn, 

only the Participles gf fallen, gflalji'M, >\C-- 
fpalten, gfltialen, have the Ancient Form. In 
the same way we have the Participles beflOHH 
men.ungerocbeii, unct'iboli-n. formed from the 
Verbs Mlt'imm'n, ra'rhen, beblcn, according to 
the First Conjugation. The Impurfcct fills) 
follows tha Ancient Form. 


Irregular Verba, § 86. 


Conjunctive. Conditional. Participle. 


6retmen 

bi'iiijjeii 

benfen 

biirfen 

f'bnncii 

mpqen 

nuiflen 

follen 

t|»ucn 

wifTen 

wolkn 


barf PI. biirfen 

faun — fbnnen 

mafl — inbflen 

mu^ — tnufTen 

foil — follen 


roeij? — wifTen 
will — mollen 


Imperfect, 
brannte 
bracbtc 
bacbte 
burftc 
fonnte 
inod;te 
nuifjte 
follte 
tl;at 

ttmgte . 
wollte 
men, rennen, fenben, and wenbeii, like brennen. 


6remie . 

6rennte . 

fie&vannt 

bruiije 

bracbte . 

. gebradjt 

benfe 

.. badne . 

fjebacht 

biirfe 

biirfte 

. ae-nrtt 

tonne 

tbnnte 

.qeioiim 

mo>ie 

mbd;te 

. geuiod.it 

miip 

.. nuifjte 

. oeimipt 

folic 

. follte • 

. gefoltt 

tl;ue 

. tbate 

. .qetban 

wifTe 

. nui|jte 

. geiuuft 

rootle 

. wollte . 

. g<iv:llt 


All Masculine 
1. Those 


Modem Form, 

A, 


All Feminine Substantives, except : 
1 . The following Primary De- 


rivatives. 


V 


TABLE Yl.— Declension of Substanti 


Ancient Fori 


Modem Form. 


JU Masculine and Neuter Substantives, except : ~ 

1. Those Names of Persons and of Animals which are Adjective-Substantives (§ 35) ; viz. »Sr, 3fou<r 
Pft ©CCf, ©efcir, ©mf, -6«lb, ®itt, 3>?«,fcb, 9<avv, D*?, IboV, SSorfabt, and the Names of Persons, 
Animals, and Nations terminating in c. The Names of Nations, SSaitt, Bariat, tfaffer, 3)?o(jV, Sartar, 
Unqar, are to be classed with these Adjective- Substantives. 

2. Foreign Names of Persons terminating in c (e. g. (& m ), at (e. g. ^dlat), nut (e. g. 2)?ujtrant), 
cnt(e.g.@wbc«t), 0)1 (e. g. ipfaomaft), iff (e. g . ^uvifl), it (e. g. Selitit), ot (e. g . 3&iot), « (e. g. iJJoa) ; 

the Greek compounds with av* (e.g. flatviarch), log (e. g. Xbeolog), fepb (e.g. >)5bilofopb), 110111 (e.g. 
«|lro)iom), agog (e.g. demagog), grapb (e.g. ©eograpb); and ffotbotif, tflcpbant, Jtoiifoiiaiit, Qitabrant, 
Quotient, planet, hornet, Sirfat. Inranii. 

Ois. I. The following have the Ancient form in the Singular, and the Modern in the Plural. 

a. The Masculine words, Wit, Sorn, $or|t, ©eoatter, Corter, Wait, Kadibar, !»f«u. ©tfrnierj, See, ©porn, ©tatfer, 
©trapl, ©trauf; (Ostrich), Setter, Untertbati, 3ierat: the foreign Masculine words, Sianiant, Jafmt, ffapaun, 
Smpefr, Rcnful, SRutfel, SPantoffel, qjrafeft, >}Jfalm, <Kubiit, @t«at, Ibroil, lAjftiltj and Names of Persons 
terminating in or without accent (e. g. Softer.) 

b. The A>«<crwords, llufle, SSett, gllbe, $emb, ijerj (Gen. Sing. Jpcrjeiijf, Dat. Jjerjen), Q6r; the foreign Neuter 
words, 3nfeft, $ronom, 2Jer6, ©tatut, Slfpefteit, gbepaften; those which now have or formerly had the Latin 
termination ium (e. g. Stubilim, Slbnerb) ; and the Adjective-Substantives terminating in ti» (e. g. Slbjeftitl), al (e. g. 
Capital), and il (e. g. Joffil). Plur. is iett in those which terminate in at and i(, and in those which now have or 
formerly had the termination ium (e. g. Joffilien, tybnerbien). 

Obs. 2. The following have the Plural in er : 

o. The Masculine words, SJb'ftroic&t, Sorn, ®ei|r, ®ott, Ceib, SKaitn, Drt, 9?anb, 2Jormunb, 2Balb, 2Burm, 3'rrtbum, 

Weie&tbum. 
b. The Neuter words, &, j&ern, Jfjubn, JTorn, Bamm, 2RauI, XUl, ®ema#, ®emiit(j, ®ef<ble#t, ®e(iej)t, ®efpenff, 
®etranb, Sent ma! ; and all other Primary derivatives which terminate in a mute consonant, or in S, f , or fcf), 
without having the augment ge : except 

25eet grj 3ocb 3HooJ 

JBeflert fflof tfreuj 9cetj 

SSrob ©ift 1'ooj qjferb 

Sing £arj Cot6 "Pfunb 

6* £eft Waft Wecbt 

The Secondary derivatives formed with tbum; and the foreign words, Jfattlifol, $arlament, Kegtment, ©pital, 
jjofP'tal. 

Obs. 3. The following do not modify the vowel in the Plural number : 

a. All Secondary derivatives except those formed with tbum ; 

b. All Neuter words which have not Plur. er ; 

c. All Primary Substantives which have the terminations (t, en, er (§ 33), except 


9ieic& 
Xog 

©alj 
@#af 
©*iff 


©diOCf 

©ieb 
©tiict 
Serbecf 
iBerlie* 


5Berf 
3elt 


Ncfer Eater 

3»attflel 

©attel 

^aben 

Ofen 

SBruber Stpfet 

OTantel 

Sctinafel 

®jrten 

©chaben 

fiammer jjammel 

Dlabel 

Soael 

®raben 


©cbwager jianbel 

SRaael 

25oben 

jjjafen 


t The following Masculine words : 





<Hal Hrm 

§arm 

$unb 3J?otc& 

©toff 

Bietfrag 

Bar Soe&t 

jpau* 

ifoeolb !Pfab 

Iflfl 

SBiebebopf 

"Hmtof Soldi 

»erjog 

Saut <5(6u6 

Xrunfenoolb 

3oll (inch). 

'Jlnroalt ©emabl 

jjuf 

Cu(b» ©taar 

Unfiolb 


r. All foreign words, except the following: 




Slbt Goer 

Kaplan 

5farf* 

iJJalaff 


Bttjr S&oral 

Jt.irbinal 

a»oru|? 

JJvocfi 


2>ifcbof ffanal 

Jflofier 

ipjblt 

and those which have Plur. er. 


jiK Feminine Substantives, except : 

1. The following Primary De- 

rivatives. 


2lt1flft 

Cuft 

2lit5flucht 

£u(i 

91ft 

3)?acbt 

2?anf 

m#> 

SBraut 

WlAUi 

SBruft 

30?utter 

Sauft 

9?a<*t 

gnicht 

9?abt 

©an^ 

9?otb 

©cfcbiutirfi 

9?uf 

©ruft 

6au 

.0anb 

©cfcnur 

•gaut 

Sta&t 

^ruft 

Zodjttt 

^mft 

Wani 

m 

2B«ifl 

^unft 

2L«ur(i 

Uau$ 

3««ft. 


2. The Secondary Derivatives 
terminating in ttigg, and the com- 
pounds with ^utlfl and Sailft (e. g. 
ginFUnftt, 3citl(iiifte). 

Obs. D&nmacbt and 2JoUmacbt, al- 
though compounds of 5Rart)t, take the 
modern form of declension. 


Ois I. AH Feminine Substantives are declined in the Plural only. 

II All Substantives with the unaccented terminations el, er, Ml, 4en, Wit, ^°P ^ vowel t in the signs of declension. The words $tli, tfriebe, tfunfe, ©ebanfe, ®(auee, 
gaufe, Kame, ©ante, ©tftabe, f8u*ftabe, 2Cille, are declined as if they still retained the termination en which they formerly had (e. g. Gen. Sing, tfelfen*, 
Dat^elfen). ©cbmerj also has Gen. Sing, ©djmerjent. 
HI Foreign Substantives of the Masculine and Neuter genders, taken from the modern languages, frequently retain the Plural i (e. g. bit ®enie«, bie ©mart?). 
IV. The words fianb, Drt, and Sortt, form double Plurals (Canbe and Ea'nber, Drte and Drtct, Somen and Sbrner,) without any difference of signification. The following 


double Plurals have acquired distinct significations : 
batf 25anb pi. 25anber, ribbons. 

2>anbe, chains, ties, 
bie 25anf 2Janfe, benches. 

Sanfen, banks, 
ha* SSett Zette, beds. 

2ietten, t 


baj ®e|iebt pi. ©eficoter, faces. 

®e|ichte, visions. 
ha i jjorit Corner, horns. 

jpcvne, kinds of horn, 
bie ©au ©aue, pigs. 

©juen, wild boars. 


baS 2Eort pi. SBb'rter, single words. 

ffiorte, words of a speech, 
baS Sing Singe, things. 

Singer, particular things, 
bai ©tiitf ©tiicfe, pieces. 

©tUefen, fragments. 


fence. 


Predicate 
ei Verb ! or Adjective *. 


III. 

Attination, § 177 — 189. 

Motion of Activity). 


Substantive, 


Object, 
in the Relations : 

1. Of Causality 6 

2. Of Locality 7 

3. Of Time" 

4. Of Manner 8 . 


l.SerS&a £tob. 4. 2Birt>erm ber (5ro6erer. 5. 2>ie 
25Hitfce be* 7. 3» bie #ir#e ge&en, uber ben 6ee 
fa&rcn. 8. 


TABLE VII. — Combinations of Notions in the Sentence. 


Predicative Combination, \ 157 — 166. 
(constitutes the Sentence). 


Subject 
expressed by a Substantive or Pronoun, 


Predicate 
expressed by a Verb ' or Adjective* 


II. 

Attributive Combination, § 167- 
(expresses a Notion of Existence). 


174. 


Substantive. 


III. 

Objective Combination, § 177 — 189. 
(expresses a Notion of Activity). 


Attribute, 
expressed by 

1. Attributive Adjective * 

2. Substantive in Apposition 4 

3. Substantive in the Genitive Case' 


Verb or Adjective. 


Object, 
in the Relations : 

1. Of Causality' 

2. Of Locality 1 
8. Of Time' 

4. Of Manner '. 


EXAMPLES. 


l.SerjSaum blil&et, berSegel fingt. 2. "Sat Staffer iff triibe.ba* ffinb iff franf. 3.Sa« triibe TOaffer. bai franfc ffinb. 4.2Bil&e(m ber groterer. 
Siiltbe be* Saumei, bcr ©efang be« SJogel*. 6. 9e« Weinti bebiirfen, ben 2Bein trinfen, bem Jiibrer fclaett. 7. D'n bie tfirtfe gebeit, ilber be 
fjfrcn. 8. 2Jcr Sage aufftefreit, na# ber 3)t a fj 1 3 e i t fcjilofen. 9. Caut fpretfen, w>'crrlict> Uberfegen. 


39. 


Objective EXAMPLES. 

fR 1 t'i ret? f c '9 en; &em ^w r ^ en bferien, ben $teu\u 
fP I en S^inb-en cergei6cn ; ber@cfoneiber macfn mir 
rs fi'nj5t Mr ein Bieb. 2. ber ©cfrneiber ma#t fur 
3. er i|t ocn meinem $mber gefefien worben. 

er D?e#te frea,e&en, ber $ulfe frebiirfen. 2. an 
Mm, e3 manaelt an 23iicbern. retch an 9?*>**r™<^ 


TABLE VIII.— Objective Combination, § 175—189. 


Objective Relations. 


Forms expressive of the Objective Relations. 


r 5 J p£^} a -*' afa ^*"9. 


fatality 


f real . . 


f Genitive Relation, 
$180. Cause sup- , 
plementavytothe^S 1031 
notionof an Action 


Relation 
of Things 


f Dative Case '. 
I Prepos. fiir 9 . 

— t)01t with Passive Voice 3 
| Genitive Case'. 
I Prepos. ail with Dat. 9 


1 ben be 
| cincn i 

J inirh t'i 


EXAMPLES, 
l. ®emff«tr«r frtgen; bent Siirfien biencn.ben Jrcum 
Ircben, oen tfcinOen cerjeiben; ber ©cbneibe* niaobt mil 
« l'"Jt bir ein Bieb. 2. bet @d)ntiber madn far 


mid) ein .Rleib. 3. 


i 1 1 o c ii i 


moral 


real 
Ablative Relation, 
§ 181. Cause, not 

ipplementary to<! 
the notion of an logical 
Action 


moral 


Accusative Relation, 
$ 182. The suf- 
fering object 




{E 
{E 


Factitive Relation, 
§ 183. Effect and. 


real . 


logical 


„, . /whence? 

Motion.. ( whit h er ? 


11. Locality! 

I Rest where? 


III. Tii 


. Duration of Time 


Genitive Case s . 
Prepos. ail with Accus." 

— ton 7 . 

— ii6er with Accus. 8 
Genitive Case 9 . 
Prepos. ii6er with Accus. 10 

— Otlf with Accus. 11 

— Dor with Dat. 1J 
Prepos. coil [external cause] '. 

— uor with Dat. [internal cause] 9 . 

— Pltrcb [means] 3 . 

— Oil! [materials] *. 

— lmch [conformity] '. 

— oaf with Accus. 6 
au3 [internal conception] *, 
Oil with Dat. [mere perception] 5 . 
Hflch [conformity] 9 . 
Oal [internal cause] 10 . , 
Weflin, haloeil [external cause] 11 , 
liacj) [conformity] ". 

Accusative Case ', 

{Nominative Case '. 
Prepos. ja 8 . 

■ — in with Accus.* 
f Nominative Case 4 . 
I Accusative Case 5 . 
1 Prep. fur 6 . 

I - til*. . 

Prep, atlf with Accus. [action J *. 

— Jit [action or design] °. 

— lttlt [possession] °. 

— liacb [possession] ". 

— fiir [advantage of persons] *. 

— um, Wiltcil [advantage of persons] 13 . 
Prepositions with the Dative Case '. 
Prepositions with the Accusative Case *. 

f Adverbs 3 . 

L Prepositions with the Dative Case \ 
(" Adverbs '. 
(Gerund) 9 . 
< Genitive Case [indefinite time] 9 . 
Accusative Case [definite time] *, 
*- Prep. 6ci [co-existence) s . 

— IIAcS [after j °. 


— am [about] 5 . , 

— an with Dat. [definite time] . 

— ill with Dat. 10 

— Oufwith Accus. [appointed timej' 1 

— tibev with Accus. [alter] ,9 . 

— cor with Dat. [before] ". 
J Accusative Case '. 

Prep. tiniKii 9 . 

— in with Dat. 3 . 

— aufwith Accus. [appointed time J 

— uiltev with Dat. [during] '. 

— iWiln cno ''. 

— 6ir. 


i 2?ruber gefeben WOfben. 


1. ©id) feuier Dic*te begeben, bcr gilife bebilrfen. 2. an 
ber 'Wrt-eit bmbern, H inmigelt an Biitfern, reicf) an SBerbienfte. 
3. einen t>on itctten tefreicn. 4. mit molbc oerfeben, mit 2*iti. 
moil frefrSnjen, nut foin.m Be eft n.fnebon. 5. einer Sprartie 
funbig ; id; entfinne mid) ft i n e r. 6. a n 6ma« benfen, nwbnen, 
erinnern. 7- con einer @acbe fpredirn, uvtoeiCeit. a. ilberGrwa 3 
luinen, fprccbcii. 9. ft inti Beben i frcb werben. 10. ilber (in 
Sanb berrfepen, fcbalton, ii fc e r ginen (atben, footten, ilber emus 
Hagen, erfraunen. 11. auf ginen marten, pertraiten, auf <8fmi 
ftolj, eiferflicbtia. 13. uor bcr ©cfa&r biiten, fcbii&en. 


1. 2? o n einer Speife franf, o o n bem SDeine betrunfen, v o ti bom 
Wegen uafi irerben. 2. v o r 2>ur|? ocrfebniacoteit, r o r Jretibe raei 
nen. 3. bur el? Xbriinen riibren, burcb ediineidiclcicn locfen. 
4. a u Scanner fin JEilb ntacften. 5. nacb JPifam ricohen. (la 
,.ffc( auf ben ertien Sdjlag. 7. Gtmi a us Grfabrung wtfjeir. 
remit ben 25egel an ben Jebern. o. er iff nacb feiner 
ein fraiijofe. 10. Gtmi a u $ gitelfeit, a u i SBeib tbun. 
n. einc» 9Jrecefse$ wegen jum SRitfi'ter geben, (jinen igtbulben 
balber oerflagcn. 12. iuic bcr i8orfd)rift banbcdi. 


r re ii nb lieben, be 


ib baifoi 


■{ 


IV. Ma niio 


{Adverbs '. 
Gerund -. 
Genitive Case J . 
Prep. mit*. 

— Mif with Accus. 

— an with Dat. 7 

— in with D;it. s 

— timer with Dat. 


l. grtvirbeiii Ciigner.er bleibt ein St'ini. 2. j u Staube, j n 
einein Eiigner werben, 311m Sflaoen marben, jur (Suite rei'". 
3. 2Ban"er in ffljein oerwanbefn. 4. SWarie beigt bie Sltitige, 
Scb-inn tuirb ber Siitifer genannt. 5. gincn eincn Xboron 
beifen, nennen, fcpelteit. 6. Sincn fiir cincn 23etrilger Iwltcr, 
erflaren; fiir einen ifiinitler geften. 7- Sinen a I i feinen ffreunb 
anfibcn, crfciuicn, 6ctrad)tcu. 8. a 11 f i'crraib (inncil, a 11 f StWilS 
oorbereiten. 9. 3 11 m ^ricben rat6en, ermabncii, jtringen, cr reifet 
3 11 111 SSergnilgen. 10. um (?tir.i? bitten, merben, fid) beniUben. 
11. 11 ad) GtwaS ocrlangcn, iTreben, lid) febnen. 12. fiir bio $U& 
fommcn »a ufer taucn, fiir ba^ 'iJatcrianb focbtou. 13. cr fr-art 
um foincritinbori»il[eii. 

1. 2Son bemSSerge, auS ber ffircfie. 2. auf ben Serg, 
in bie tfircbe, an ben Strom, ocr ba5 Xbor. 3. cboii, 
unten, allentbalben. 4. auf bem 2Jcr,)c, in ber J?ird)f, 
an bem igtrome, cor bem Xbore. 


1. ©tfrern.neulid), jegt. 8.blefe3 foi mir bcufcnb, frfJlief 
icpein. 3.be* SBorgenJ, be* HbenbS, Sonntag*. 4.ben 
er(t«nfiii. 6. bti ©onnemaufgang. 6. nacb Oireni. 7. ju 
> renter 3cit. 8. 11 111 fficibnacpten, 11 111 bie jwb'lfte Stunbe. 9. a m 
erficn April. 10. iniaVnat-Kai. U.aiif bcnSoniitag. 12. iiber 
brei2Dod)0n. 13. d r 0|tern. 


1. Sen aanjen Xjg arbeiten. 3. binnen brci Xagcn ein 

SPert oblienben. 3. , „ itci m&n. 4. Gtwa* a u f brci ifficcftcu 

f iciben. 3. unter bcr ijlrebigt. 6. w j'brenb memer 2(tirefenbeii 

7.bi5 Often.. 8.feit0|-«ra,ftitb«i Xagcn. •' C,ri, """ lt - 


l.«Unb!i*6«rl*ten,fafr*f* n ,o K n. a«fp M « IScfielnb 

cr femint s 1 ' ^ u t e 11. 3. (fj n ,„ a n t * (? rn ,,..i ,..,„ , h „ , „' 

1. a ,„ f ,eunb..*fftn. 8. (tmi in, 3 erno rbun. ^Gmcu * V 
Xjra'nen wtttn. 


(Attribute 
Adjective 


Xcr alt 


Principal. 

be* %Bt%t$ 
emeu ^rief 
auf Me $oft 
eirnn $rief 


PREDICATED 

fimbi.q. 

gebra&t. 

brin.qcn. 

(0) 


fleet. 


Sen s 3i 
Sen 9Ji 
£eute 


Principal. 

tjollfommcn 
meiwem 2>ater 
auf Me $oji 
auf Me ^ojl 
auf Me ^ojt 


PREDICATE. \ 

funbi,g. 

#ebvacbt. 

brin.qen. 

(o) 
Bring eti? 


XADICATE.X 


Sa ' 
9Betm 

Sag 
D6 . 


tnbiq 
ihtad)t 
a#en 
(0) 


COPULA. 


iff. 
l)at. 
foil. 
brin#r. 


0£*. In th< f he Participle or Infinitive that of the Predi- 
cate. In sepSimple verbs, not connected with «n auxiliary 

verb, take th? (o). 


TABLE IX.—Constructi 


(Attributive 
Adjective. 


Tcralte 2?ebiente 


Attributive 
Substantia 


:) 


r twines' Sruberg •> 


Principal Sentence, not inverted. 
COPULA. y 


Object. 


J bat 
C&rhiflt 


^.Subordinate. 


meincm 2>ater 
ben 2jtief 


Principal. 

be« sjBe.aci* 
cincii igricf 
ottf tic <po|t 
eincii 2>rief 


PRED1CATE.\ 


Funbie. 

.qebra'cbr. 

brin.qcn. 

(0) 


TeS 2Peac* 
Ten 2>rief 
Ten SBvief 
fietttc 


S* 1 
bat 

foil 

6rina.t 

J? aim 


II. Principal Sentence, inverted. 
e SUBJECT. 


(Attributive 
Adjective. 


ber altc 2jcbiente 


Attributi 
Substanti 


ive / Vj 


fweijwS ©rubers 
I aits' tariff 


Object. 


ben 59rief 

ben &W 


Principal. 
voUfomtncn 
tneiuem 2?ater 
auf bie <fof! 
auf bie ijjof! 
auf bie jjoft 


PREDICATE. 


funbiq. 

fle&racbt. 

brin.qetv 

(0) 
orin^en? 


(Attributive 
Adjective. 


2>a "1 
Stan I 

06 J 


SUBJECT. 


beralte 2Sebiente 


Attributive \ 
Substantive.^/ 

f meineg ©rubers' * 
I aui <)Jarig J 


III. Accessory Sentence. 
/ Object. 


- Subordinate. 

fbel Wegti 
I meinem 2?ater 
I ben iBrief 


Principal, 
rollfonnnen 
eineti ©rief 
auf bie >}}ofr 
ben Srief 


PREDICATE.^ 

funbiq 

fle&racbt 

traqen 

(0) 


COPULA. 


Obi. In tho»e forms of the verb which nre compounded with auxiliary verbs, the auxiliary verb takes the place of the Copula, and the Participle 

'•'it of the Predicate.— Simph 
t place of the Predicate (o). 


iff. 

pat. 

foil, 
brinar. 

Infinitive that of the Predi- 


rate.— In separable compound verbs, the verb takes the place of the Copula, and the adverbial component that of the Predicate.— Simple verbs, not connected with i 
verb, take the place of the Copula ; but in this case the position of the Object depends upon that of the l 






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